Vietnam extends 1650 km from north to south in an S-like shape and only 50 km across at its narrowest point. It covers 329 560 square kilometers which is slightly smaller than Germany. In July 2005 the population was estimated at 83,5 million people, growing at an estimated rate of 1.04 percent annually. Vietnam’s coastline runs 3 444 km alongside the Gulf of Thailand, Gulf of Tonkin and the South China Sea. In the north Vietnam borders China in the west Laos and Cambodia. (Figure 29)

Vietnamese (Kinh) account for 86 percent of the population, the rest come from 53 smaller ethnic minority groups, e.g. Muong, Tay, Khmer, or Cham. The 1999 census revealed that 80.8 percent of the population had no religion, 9.3 percent were Buddhist, 6.7 percent Catholic and 3.2 percent followed other religions, namely Hinduism, Islam, Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, and Protestantism (CIA 2005).

With 91 percent the primary school enrolment rate in Vietnam is high. Children attend primary school from age six to ten. About 60 percent of them go on to secondary school. (Baulch et al. 2002, cited in Felsing and Ha 2003,2) However the Research Institute for Marine Products in Hai Phong, Vietnam, notices, that the general education level of fishermen is low, i.e. only 20 percent finish primary education, while 68 percent do not, less than 10 percent go on to high school and only 0.65 percent graduate from vocational schools or universities (RIMP 2005a).

The literacy rate in Vietnam was 93.9 percent for men, 86.9 percent for woman and 90.3 percent for the total population in 2002 (CIA 2005).

According to unofficial statistics, 80 percent of households in coastal communities rely on fishing and associated activities (STREAM 2004,1).

Nha Phu Lagoon lies in the province (Tinh) of Khanh Hoa located in South Central Vietnam. The lagoon covers 4 500 ha and is surrounded by 12 villages. The villages lie in two districts (Huyen) Ninh Hoa and Nha Trang, representing five municipalities (Xa): Ninh Phu, Ninh Ha, Ninh Loc, Ninh Ich and Vinh Luong. The exact location of the 12 villages (Thon) is illustrated in Figure 30. The same figure shows the line of demarcation (Duong Ranh gioi) between the two capes (mui) Mui Ke Ga and Mui Da Chong which represents the official border of the Lagoon’s territorial waters according to the directive No. 26 CT/UB dated 01/06/2002. The communities lie north of Nha Trang City along Highway No. 1 and are easily accessible. Dirt roads connect the villages with the highway, whereby Le Cam as remotest village is situated approximately six kilometers from the highway.

Nha Phu Lagoon is fed by the Da Han, Cau Lam and Cai Rivers, and is sheltered from the open sea by the Hon Heo Peninsula. Various islands are scattered across the lagoon and divide the water surface. The mostly narrow coastal plains quickly extend to mountain ranges that are utilized by growing fruit trees like bananas, mangos or cashews. To the southwest of the coast extends a vast salt marsh. The large plains to the west of the lagoon are used for intensive rice cultivation. The entire coastline between the villages Ngoc Diem and Le Cam is converted into shrimp ponds clearly visible on the satellite picture of Figure 30. The shallow waters between Cat Loi and the tourist island Hon Cu Lao are used for lobster cage culture.

The annual average temperature is 27°C, with a maximum in May and June of 28°C and a minimum temperature in January of 23,8°C. The average annual rainfall is about 1500 mm, whereby 70-80% occurs in the rainy season. There are two monsoon seasons: the winter monsoon (rainy season) from the northeast between September and December and the summer monsoon (dry season) from the southwest between January and August. The winter monsoon has strong implications on the fishing sector, as it produces high waves and strong winds that prevent the majority of small boats from going fishing on the open sea. Four fishermen even hold weather changes responsible for the decline of coastal fishery resources and give it a high ranking in the questionnaire, which could be an indication for an increase of extreme weather events in the context of global warming. However inside the lagoon there is less negative impact compared with the open sea and fishing activities remain untainted besides the increasing competition from those fishermen who transfer their fishing activities from the open sea into the lagoon during the winter months. Expressed by the words of a fisherman from Vo Tanh: “Other boats go fishing inside the bay, because if the sea is rough they can’t go outside the bay” (44:10). A more devastating impact from the winter monsoon affects the villages to the back of the lagoon, namely Tam Ich, Tan Te, Ha Lien, and Le Cam.

Figure 29. Map of Vietnam with indicated study area.

Source: University of Texas (2005)

Figure 30. Satellite image of study location Nha Phu Lagoon with bordering villages and indicated line of demarcation between the two capes (mui).

Source: adapted and modified from Google (2005)

These villages are prone to seasonal flooding due to excessive rainfall in the highlands and their location in the river deltas making roads impassable. Yet even worse is the effect on the polyculture of shrimps and crabs cultured in ponds in the area (21:8). Although crabs like low salinity (5-10°), the dilution with rainwater leads to their death (21:6). In addition shrimps are lost to neighboring ponds simply swimming away as the area becomes flooded (21:8). In general the meteorological, oceanographic, and topographic conditions of Nha Phu Lagoon are favorable and suitable for cage mariculture (Tuan, Nho and Hambrey 2000,2). The tidal regime is irregular diurnal with a tidal height of 1.5-2.0 meters.

Vietnam is a socialist republic ruled by the communist party. There is no opposition and attempts to institute a plural party system have been rejected by the communist party. In recent years, attempts have been made to further separate party and state from each other. Since economic reforms started in 1986 (Doi Moi)

Doi Moi (renovation) is the name given to economic reforms in the mid 1980s and marked by the death of Le Duan in 1986. As a result of Doi Moi central planning was abandoned, collectivization gradually abolished, and market oriented reforms, encouraging free-market enterprises, implemented.

The state economy was founded on the principles of central planning and collective ownership. By the early 1980’s the weaknesses of the central planning model began to manifest themselves through stagnating economic growth and rapidly rising inflation. The Doi Moi reform in 1986 started a new era with the transition from central planning to market economy with a socialist orientation. Currently the Vietnamese economy is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has increased from 32.9 billion USD in 2001 to 45.1 billion USD in 2004, growing at 7.5 percent annually. The Gross National Income (GNI), accounted with the Atlas method, has grown from 410 USD per capita in 2001 to 550 USD per capita in 2004. The inflation rate was 8.3 percent in October 2005. Although Vietnam is an agrarian society with 70 percent (2001) of the labor force working in agriculture, fishery and forestry, agriculture accounted for only 21.8 percent of the GDP in 2003 following a declining trend. The largest share with 40 percent came from industrial enterprises. The services industry, namely banking, finance and insurance generated turnovers amounting to 38.2 percent of GDP. (World Bank, 2005)

In order to compare people’s livelihood and development economic indicators should be viewed critically, because only economically valued goods are measured. Therefore the Human Development Index (HDI), accounted through the average life expectancy, literacy and the Purchase Power Parity, is a much better indicator. In the HDI classification from 2005, Vietnam ranks 108^th out of 177 countries; Germany, in comparison, ranks 20^th (UNDP 2005,219). The achievements in reducing poverty in Vietnam have been impressive. Poverty fell from well over 70% in the mid-1980s to 37% in 1998. Yet poverty is still a widespread phenomenon in rural areas (IMF 2004,14). For this reason, in September 2002 the prime minister approved the decree No. 825/QD-TTg on poverty reduction following the comprehensive poverty reduction and growth strategy (CPRGS) which includes a 10-year socioeconomic development strategy (2001-2010) and a 5-year socioeconomic development plan (2001-2005) with detailed objectives, institutional arrangements, policies and solutions (IMF 2004,iii).

The move from a centrally planned economy to what the Vietnamese Government describes as ‘socialist-oriented’ market economy has led to economic growth, poverty reduction and employment opportunities (DFID 2004,2). However, the underlying policies do not explain fully the ways in which natural resources are used and managed (Kingma et a. 2001,2). Fishermen and other resource holders do not operate in a vacuum but are influenced by values and institutions (Kilpatrick 2003,3). According to Kingma et al. (2001,13-14) values and belief systems are one factor affecting the adoption of natural resource management practices and are just as important as contemporary economic issues.

Within the scope of the World Value Survey a representative study conducted by Dalton and Ong in 2001, covering 1 000 respondents all over Vietnam, sheds light on the human, social and political values (Dalton and Ong 2001,13). The following list represents the main findings of the survey (Dalton and Ong 2001,1-14):

• The family is the most important social structure in Vietnamese society (cf. Felsing and Ha 2003,vii). Almost all Vietnamese, namely 99 percent, feel that parents are to be respected regardless of their qualities and faults.

• Although many Vietnamese are members in a variety of social groups, their actual activities in such groups is quite limited, averaging only 10 percent among group members.

• Perhaps due to this social disconnection many Vietnamese are skeptical of their fellow man, 59 percent say, that most people cannot be trusted.

• This assertion corresponds to experience within my own studies, where a discussion about the introduction of a community marketing board to sell quality lobster fry for higher prices was doomed to fail, because according to the fishermen’s own statements Vietnamese are very deceitful and this would reflect the Asian culture not to trust each other (59:4).

• Yet, according to Dalton and Ong (2001,5) the level of social trust appears higher compared to other nations at Vietnam’s level of development.

• The traditional role of women remains strong with 86 percent of respondents specifying, that a woman needs to have children, and that being a housewife is just as fulfilling as paid employment.

• Compared with other countries, e.g. China (41 percent), Japan (17 percent) or the United States (49 percent) the belief in moral absolutes is especially strong among Vietnamese with 58 percent. Therefore Vietnamese do not believe, that various illegal activities such as bribery, falsifying taxes or illegal claiming government benefits are ever justified.

• Contrary to these findings are experiences from my own findings which are reflected in various coding categories such as: Government fails to enforce fishing regulations, Government failure to enforce laws and regulations and eventually in three categories dealing with Illegal fishing/dragnet, Illegal fishing/electric fishing and Illegal fishing/dragnet equipped with electric gear exemplifying the enormous amount of illegal activities taking place in Nha Phu Lagoon, although people know it is against the current law (cf. 58:2; 65:6; 15:9; 77:3).

• While in Western democracies such ethical and moral beliefs are frequently linked to religious values, only 10 percent of the public in Vietnam view religion as an important part of their life. About 46 percent of Vietnamese say, they do not belong to any religion and 82 percent think, that religious leaders do not provide adequate moral support. Accordingly few believe in heaven, hell, God, life after death, the soul, or other religious concepts.

• Concerning the question government versus private ownership of business the Vietnamese public reflects the economic reforms of the past decade, with the majority of 81 percent favoring privately owned businesses, while 19 percent still support government ownership. Further examples from the survey exemplify the shift in values from a socialist to a market-oriented economy.

• Instead of agreeing that the government should provide for individuals, 67 percent say, that people should take more responsibility for themselves. Three quarters of the public believe, “competition is good. It stimulates people to work hard and develop new ideas.” Anyhow the work ethic is very strong in Vietnam and the importance of leisure remarkably low namely seven percent. As a result 60 percent tend towards large income differences as an incentive for individual effort instead of giving emphasis to equal incomes.

• 80 percent of citizens are interested in the political process of which 29 percent are members of a political organization, in particular the Communist Party. Only four percent have ever signed a petition and only two percent have attended a demonstration. However, 52 percent are willing to sign a petition and 40 percent expressed their willingness to participate in a demonstration.

• Vietnamese have a strong sense of national identity, respectively 98 percent feel national pride. This level of identification and support of the nation are amongst the highest in the world according to the World Values Survey and on the same level as in the U.S.

• The Vietnamese express exceptional confidence in a wide array of political and social institutions. For example, 98 percent declare confidence in the national government, 97 percent in the parliament, 96 percent in the military, and 93 percent in the police. Vietnamese consistently express greater confidence levels compared to confidence levels averaged across Japan, Korea and Taiwan.

• However the authors suspect, that respondents may not feel, that stating a lack of confidence is a socially accepted answer. Furthermore, the World Values Survey has identified a tendency for citizens in more developed and open societies to be more willing to question institutions and authorities.

• Corresponding to the authors, suspicion I observed a significant lower confidence of coastal commune citizens in local government authorities and executive bodies such as the marine border police concerning the effective enforcement of current fishery legislation (cf. 36:2; 76:4; 81:13; 18:25; 76:6). However, my experience is the result of a carefully established relationship over six months and not the result of the present nonrecurring household survey.

• Interestingly Vietnamese confidence towards international organizations is significantly lower, namely 76 percent for ASEAN

  The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a political, economic, and cultural organization of countries in Southeast Asia, founded on August 8^th, 1967 by Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Singapore and which has expanded gradually to include Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995) Myanmar and Laos (1997), and Cambodia (1999) with Papua New Guinea as an observer.

  and only 61 percent for the United Nations. These low evaluations suggest a broad skepticism of international action on issues such as environmental protection, international peacekeeping, guaranteeing human rights, or economic development assistance.

• Reflecting the previous findings, most Vietnamese (96 percent) are satisfied with the current political system. These views are more positive than images of the government ten years ago (84 percent). This is the opposite of what might be expected, i.e. citizens seldom are more positive about current governments than past governments.

• Yet the Vietnamese support further reforms. 54 percent stipulate stronger measures towards societal reforms, 30 percent would like a more gradual approach, and only 16 percent think: “Our present society must be valiantly defended against all subversive forces.”

• One apparent political reform concerns the democratization of politics and nearly all Vietnamese (97 percent) have appreciated the government’s decision to add the concept “democracy” into the national development slogan: “Prosperous people; strong nation; just, democratic, and civilized society.” Only five percent openly disagree. Most Vietnamese support the concept of democracy. However, one must be cautious about interpreting this endorsement for democracy in Vietnam, as “democracy” has different meanings to different people and has just recently been introduced into the political system.

The Ministry of Fisheries (MOFI) characterizes marine resources as follows. There are more than 2 000 species of fish in Vietnam waters, of which about 130 species have economic value. Latest evaluations estimate 4.2 million tons of fish stock biomass in the entire sea. The total allowable catch (TAC) amounts to 1.7 million tons, including 850 000 tons of demersal fish, 700 000 tons of small pelagic fish and 120 000 tons of pelagic fish. About 600 000 tons of the total allowable catch account for coastal fishery resources in areas of less than 50 meters depth. However, a recent publication from the Research Institute for Marine Products in Hai Phong restates, that fish stock in Vietnam’s waters fluctuates from 3.1 to 4.2 million tons, with a total allowable catch of 1.4 to 1.6 million tons annually (RIMP 2005a). The sea area of Vietnam is divided into four sometimes five regions, namely the Tonkin Gulf, the Central Sea, the South East, the South West, and the Mid-China Sea. The distribution of fish stock in Vietnam’s waters is depicted in Table 4.

Source: RIMP 2005a

Marine waters

Stock (tons)

TAC (tons)

Tonkin Gulf

542 730

256 092

Central

622 494

298 998

South East

908 879

415 952

South West

478 689

223 075

Mid-China Sea

510 000

230 000

All marine waters

3 072 792

1 426 617

Table 4. Fish stock and total allowable catch in
Vietnam’s marine waters.

Besides marine fish there are more than 1 600 species of crustaceans with an annual total allowable catch of 50 000-60 000 tons of particularly high valued species such as shrimps, lobsters and crabs. From 2 500 species of mollusks, squid and cuttlefish are highly valued species and the annual total allowable catch is 60-70 000 tons. Further economic value accounts for macroalgae such as Gracilaria verrucosa and Sargassum, of which 45-50 000 tons can be harvested each year. (RIMP 2005a; cf. Thanh 1995,75-80)

As a result of the economic reforms the number and capacity of fishing vessels has developed rapidly. 1986 for example there were 31 680 fishing vessels with a total engine capacity of 537 500 hp. In 1998 the number of boats had increased to 71 904 with a total engine capacity of 2 502 020 hp besides the 29 000 artisanal fishing boats. And the latest figures from 2005 revealed 85 430 fishing boats and a total engine capacity of 4 721 701 hp in 2004 (RIMP 2005a).

Source: Ruangsivakul and Siriraksophon 2002,3

Number of boats

Total horse power (hp)

< 20 hp

20-45 hp

46-75 hp

76-140 hp

> 140 hp

71 904

2 502 020

36 250

21 563

8 172

3 052

2 867

Table 5. Number of fishing boats by engine capacity groups.

Of the total numbers of vessels about 6 000 fishing boats are fitted with engines that are 90 hp or more and which can operate in offshore waters. Most of the fishing vessels are made of wood, only a few state owned trawlers are made of steel. The inshore fishery depends on a fleet consisting of the 29 000 artisanal, non-mechanized boats mentioned above and approximately 45 000 smaller mechanized boats with 1-cylinder diesel engines up to 20 hp (FAO 2005). These vessels operate directly from the beach without using harbor facilities (FAO 2005). In the category of 45 hp or more 33 percent have global-positioning system, 21 percent have echo sounders, 63 percent have walkie-talkies, and 12.5 percent have long distance radio. The composition of the offshore fishing fleet according to engine sizes is shown in Table 5. (RIMP 2005b)

Figure 31. Laborers in the fishery sector from 1990 until 2000.

Source: MOFI

Vietnam’s fishery sector also provides jobs for the country’s labor force. By the end of 2000 there were 3.4 million laborers in the fishery sector (Figure 31) of which 484 000 persons were in fishing, 668 000 in aquaculture, 102 000 in processing, and 2 146 000 persons in services. From the 484 000 persons engaged in marine fishing, 73 percent worked in coastal fishing and 27 percent in offshore fishing. (RIMP 2005b)

According to the Ministry of Fisheries the total catch for 2004 was 1 724 200 tons compared with 746 570 tons 10 years ago (RIMP 2005a; cf. Figure 32). In the year 2000 the total catch of marine fish was 1 280 590 tons, of which 832 384 tons were from inshore fishing and 448 206 tons from offshore fishing (Tri 2002,4). The latest figures reveal, that in 2002 the total fishery’s production had soared to 2 410 900 tons with an export value of little over 2 billion USD (Figure 33). Thereby marine fish landings amounted to 1 434 800 tons and aquaculture contributed 976 100 tons. (MOFI 2005f)

Figure 32. Total fishery’s production from 1990 until 2002 and latest figures from marine fishing.

Source: MOFI 2005f, RIMP 2005a

Figure 33. Total export value of Vietnam’s fishery sector from 1990 to 2002.

Source: MOFI 2005f

At the national level, the Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs (MOLISA) began coordinating the Hunger Eradication and Poverty Reduction (HEPR) program in 1992 as a large focused effort to promote socioeconomic development and eradicate poverty (STREAM 2004,2). Since 2000 the fishery’s sector continue to carry out three target programs that are publicly available in all their particulars:

• Decision 251/1998/Q§-TTg issued on the 25^th of December 1998 targets the development of fishery’s export to the year 2005. Among other things the objectives of the program are as follows:

• To make the fishery’s sector become a key economic sector of Vietnam’s economy

• To create more jobs

• To increase fishery’s export value in order to reach 1.1 billion USD by the year 2000 and 2 billion USD by the year 2005

• To contribute to improve people’s life

• To develop markets (FICen 2005a)

• The decision 224/1999/Q§-TTg issued on the 8th of December 1999 targets the development of aquaculture in the period of 1999 to 2010. The objectives of the program are as follows:

• To develop aquaculture to improve food security and to make ‘seafood’ become the main export commodity

• To achieve a total volume of 2 million tons in aquaculture and a total export value of 2.5 billion USD by the year 2010

• To create jobs for 2 million people

• To contribute to the economic and societal development of the country (FICen 2005b)

• The offshore program launched in 1997 targets the development of the offshore fishing fleet. The main objectives are as follows:

• To create a fleet of around 800 deep sea fishing vessels, which can exploit the exclusive economic zone (EEZ)

• To provide preferential loans to fishermen to encourage deep-sea fishing by either upgrading boats or newly built vessels with engines larger than 90 hp (STAT-USA 2003)

Other target programs focusing on poverty reduction in the fishery and aquaculture sector include the following:

• Decree No. 224/1999/QD-TTg issued on the 8^th of December 1999 and termed Sustainable Aquaculture for Poverty Alleviation (SAPA) strategy targets poor people in rural areas to diversify and improve their livelihoods through aquaculture. The main goals are as follows:

• To strengthen and build particularly the capacity of local institutions and communities with the incentive to understand and support livelihoods of poor and vulnerable people

• To improve access to materials, information, financial and extension services and markets for poor people

• To improve communication among stakeholders through awareness building and knowledge sharing, networking, inter-sectoral/sectoral and donor coordination by means of introducing participatory planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation approaches

• To develop and adopt environmentally friendly, low-risk, low-cost aquaculture technologies and management practices (MOFI 2001,8-9)

• The decree No. 2685/VPCP-QHQT issued on the 21^st of May 2002 and termed Comprehensive Poverty Reduction and Growth Strategy (CPRGS) provides a framework for further poverty reduction elaborating all general objectives, institutional arrangements, policies and solutions of the 10-Year Socio-Economic Development Strategy (2001-2010), 5-Year Socio-Economic Development Plan (2001-2005) and Annual Socio-Economic Development Plan into specific action plans (MOFI 2002,2). Thereby the CPRGS recognizes and takes into account the rapid growth of the fishery and aquaculture sector and its role in the national poverty reduction programs. The CPRGS is comprised of six parts with the following fishery’s relevant objectives:

• To promote research and efficient use of natural resources

• To expand fishery’s and extension activities in such a way, that they are well adapted to different site conditions and by demand of the poor

• To diversify aquaculture

• To develop comparative advantages in fishery production (diversify fishery production, improve processing capability to raise product quality)

• To invest in support of fisheries and aquaculture infrastructure, e.g. roads, power transmission lines, national breeding centers

• To further improve access of poor fishery households to production inputs, information, extension services, finance and markets

• To invest in mariculture of ocean fish, to develop offshore fishing fleets

• To achieve an average growth rate of 4-4.5 percent in the fishery sector in the period from 2001 to 2010 (MOFI 2002)

At the provincial level the Khanh Hoa Department of Fisheries, respectively the Department of Fishery Resource Protection, provides the following original copy:

• Documents on Propaganda of Fishery Resource Protection address competent local authorities. The ordinance includes five chapters: Chapter I, Fishery resource protection and development; Chapter II, Functions, duties and powers of Khanh Hoa Department of Protection and Development of Fishery Resources; Chapter III, Organization of implementation of department’s functions; Chapter IV, Specific duties of collaborators in fishery resource protection; and Chapter V, The relation between collaborator groups and the People’s Committee of the village – Khanh Hoa Department of Fishery Resource Protection. The present ordinance deals with:

• Activities destroying fishery resources (environmental pollution, destructive fishing gear, i.e. poison, explosives and electricity, destruction of mangrove forest), exploitation in breeding grounds concerning area and season and precious and rare species

• Propagation of official documents concerning the protection and development of fishery resources and the enforcement of existing laws and regulations

• Responsibilities of different scopes including: (a) Fishery exploitation: check, patrol, control, management of prohibited areas, seasons (mesh size, light sources, size of fish species, electric fishing, poisons, explosives); (b) Aquaculture: check, quarantine, fry, feed, waste water practices; (c) Fish processing: check processed raw material, species, size, seasonal harvest, waste water disposal; (d) Fishing vessel registration: management, safety, newly built and fixed vessels, marine safety instruments, registration and issuance of licenses for fishing (for vessels 20 m or less and engines under 20 hp)

• Organization of the Department of Fishery Resource Protection

• Manner of reporting between competent authorities

The following chapter gives a review of the fishery’s legislation in Vietnam at national and provincial level. A selection of the most recent and important laws at the national level is mentioned below. The text box on the following page contains laws at the provincial level concerning Khanh Hoa Province and governing fisheries management at Nha Phu Lagoon. The first section represents laws that are publicly available. The second paragraph contains a summary of laws (original copy) that were collected in Vietnam. And the third section refers to translated, original documents.

In collaboration with the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Vietnamese Ministry of Fisheries an institutional cooperation and technical assistance project was implemented on September 27^th 1999, regarding the “Establishment of Vietnam Fisheries Law and Regulations” (MOFI 2005a). On the 26^th of December 2003 the National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam approved the Fisheries Law No. 17/2003/qh11 coming into effect on the 1^st of July 2004. This new law marks a milestone in Vietnams fishery sector providing a future legal framework for fisheries development and management (cf. FAO 2005). The law consisting of 62 articles in 10 chapters contains provisions on capture fisheries, aquaculture, resource management, services and trade, international cooperation, and rights and responsibilities of parties involved in the sector (MOFI 2003). In more details these provisions deal with aquaculture, mariculture, ecosystem preservation, protection of fish and the environment, and regulations for fishing vessel navigation, docking and transportation (FAO 2005). Further particulars govern the conduct of fishermen, the fishing gears and methods, the season and size of catch, and the functions and responsibilities of the competent authorities (FAO 2005). In addition to the fisheries law two further laws were adopted recently and are listed in the annex.

The above regulations are enforced through a fisheries inspection scheme involving some 50 vessels nationwide. Due to the increasing importance of fish exports particular emphasis is paid by the National Fisheries Inspection and Quality Assurance Centre (NAFIQACEN) to assure quality and hygiene in processing facilities for export. (NORAD 2002a,14)

In coherence with the establishment of a new fishery law in Vietnam the Vietnamese Department of Legislation from the Ministry of Fisheries has recently launched a website offering a wide and comprehensive selection of international and national legal documents concerning Vietnam’s Fisheries. The downloadable decrees, laws, circulars, and code of conducts are available in English on the Ministry’s website (MOFI 2005c).

The People’s Council (Hoi Dong Nhan Dan) is the highest government authority in a province. The citizens elect the People’s Council representatives. Each People’s Council has a standing committee, which in turn is elected by the representatives. Besides the standing committee there are a number of other committees, such as the Economic and Budgetary Committee or the Social and Cultural Committee. Furthermore, the People’s Council assigns a People’s Committee, which acts as the administrative arm of the provincial government (45:2; 41:18). This arrangement represents to a certain extent the national government. Provincial governments are subordinate to the national government. (Wikipedia 2005)

As mentioned before, the People’s Committee (Uy Ban Nhan Dan) is the executive arm of a provincial government. It is responsible for implementing legislative decisions (45:2). A president, who is assisted by a vice-president and nine or eleven ordinary members, heads the People’s Committee. In addition to the People’s Committee on province (tinh) level there are People’s Committees on two more administrative levels, namely district (huyen) and municipality (xa) level (13:11). On village (thon) level there are no People’s Committees. (Wikipedia 2005) The levels of administration in Vietnam are depicted in Figure 34.

Figure 34. Administrative levels in Vietnam (English/Vietnamese).

Figure 35. Organization of the fishery sector jurisdiction and administrative levels with particular emphasis on the management of coastal fisheries resources.

Source: Representative of the Fisheries Resources Protection Department, Nha Trang
(25.11. 2003)

Vietnam’s Ministry of Fisheries (Bo Thuy San) has ten advisory departments and is headed by a Minister of Fisheries, who is assisted by four vice-ministers. The current departments are:

• Administration Department

• Finance and Investment Department

• Department of Science and Technology

• Personnel and Labor Department

• Inspection Bureau

• International Cooperation Department

• Legislation Department

• Department of Aquaculture

• National Directorate of Aquatic Resources Exploitation and Protection (NADAREP)

• National Fisheries Quality Assurance and Veterinary Directorate (NAFIQAVED)

• (FICen 2005c)

The Ministry of Fisheries was restructured after the approval of the Government Decree No. 43/2003/ND-CP issued on the 2^nd of May 2003. It outlines the main functions, duties, authorities and organizational structure of the Ministry of Fisheries (MOFI 2005d). While the overall mandate of the Ministry of Fisheries remains unchanged, the decree has led to significant internal restructuring and the renaming of departments. The most prominent case is the nowadays so-called National Directorate of Aquatic Resources Exploitation and Protection, formerly known as Fisheries Resources Protection Department and sometimes termed National Directorate of Fisheries Resources Exploitation and Protection or Department of Fisheries Resources Protection (cf. 45:4). Unfortunately no general diction exists and mutually the FAO and the official website of Vietnam’s Ministry of Fisheries both use old and new terms (cf. FAO 2005). Despite the Vietnamese habitual language use and the fact that the names of the sub-departments of the Ministry of Fisheries on provincial level remain unchanged, I refer to the new terminology, i.e. the National Directorate of Aquatic Resources Exploitation and Protection (NADAREP).

The National Directorate of Aquatic Resources Exploitation and Protection constitutes a department with enforcement mandate and is responsible for the management of fisheries in Vietnam. Its role is stipulated in decree No. 08/2003/QD-BTS issued on the 5^th of August 2003, which regulates in general terms, the management and protection of fisheries resources, the development of fishing operations, and navy safety (MOFI 2005e). The 37 sub-departments of the National Directorate of Aquatic Resources Exploitation and Protection called the Fisheries Resources Protection Departments (Chi cuc Bao ve nguon loi Thuy San) are responsible for policy promulgation, direct management, inspection, and protection of the fisheries resources (FAO 2005).

The National Directorate of Fisheries Quality Assurance and Veterinary Directoratemain office and six branches are the national competent authority for fisheries food safety assurance and quality control (FAO 2005).

The National Fisheries Extension Centre and its system of fisheries and agricultural extension units nationwide is responsible for transferring experiences, technologies and information to fishermen and farmers (FAO 2005).

In 26 of the 28 coastal provinces there is a Provincial Department of Fisheries (So Thuy San) that reports to the Ministry of Fisheries while remaining under the jurisdiction of the Provincial People’s Committee. At the provincial level the Fisheries Resources Protection Department is represented as a sub-department of the National Directorate of Aquatic Resources Exploitation and Protection in the Ministry of Fisheries (Figure 35; 45:4). This sub-department is also under the control of the Provincial People’s Committee but receives supervision and reports to the Fisheries Resources Protection Department in the Ministry of Fisheries (Figure 35).

In inland provinces with no Department of Fisheries the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development carries out the fisheries administration mandate. (FICen 2005c)

The district level is the lowest administrative level with professional staff, i.e. represented by a few staff from the Provincial Department of Fisheries. At the lowest administrative level, the municipality level, there is no professional staff. (NORAD 2002a,13)

Figure 36. Organizations and structures in the fishery sector of Vietnam.

Organizations in the fishery sector of Vietnam are depicted in the following organization chart (Figure 36). More detailed information concerning these organizations and their functions can be found in the appendix.

As marine fisheries in Vietnam developed somewhat “spontaneously”, authorities “stayed out of control for a long time” (RIMP 2005a). Since the total catch in Vietnam exceeded the total allowable catch in 2002, the Ministry of Fisheries is called upon to take effective management measures (RIMP 2005a).

Nevertheless fisheries management strategies exist that regulate mesh sizes of trawl cod- end

Trawl nets are cone or funnel shaped nets towed along or near the bottom of the sea by a trawler to catch both finfish and shellfish. The cod-end is the rearmost and narrowest part of the trawl net, where the catch is collected.

Source: MOFI, cited in FAO 2005

No

Type of fishing gear

Minimum mesh size (mm)

1

Sardine gillnet

28

2

Mackerel gillnet

90

4

Shrimp trammel net

44

Shrimp gillnet

44

5

Lobster gillnet

120

6

Anchovy seine net;

Anchovy purse seine

10

8

Fish trawl:

- vessels with engines < 60 hp

28

- vessels with engines 60 to 150 hp

34

- vessels with engines > 150 hp

40

9

Shrimp trawl:

- vessels with engines < 33 hp

20

- vessels with engines > 33 hp

30

10

Stationary net

20

Table 6. Type of fishing gear and minimum mesh size.

Fisheries management also depends on regulations concerning limitations on access to fishing grounds, gears and methods restrictions on fishing seasons and closed areas (NORAD 2002a,14). As mentioned before the total allowable catch, as a form of limitating the extraction of fishery resources, is set for five different sea areas. Forms of closed areas are marine parks. The government aims to establish 15 marine protected areas of which three are under implementation, namely Hon Mun, Cu Lao Cham and Con Dao (CEN 2004). The long-term goal is to conserve two percent of the countries sea area by 2010 (CEN 2004).

Other forms of fisheries management aim at developing aquaculture through the allocation of use rights in coastal waters (NORAD 2002a,13).

A system for fishing vessel registration exists, yet there are no restrictions to enter any fishery (NORAD 2002a,14). Fishing licenses are granted on the basis of submitting a number of supporting documents such as vessel inspection and registration papers (FAO 2005). In 1999 more than 60 000 fishing vessels carried a license (NORAD 2002a,14).

The area around Nha Phu Lagoon comprises a range of agro-ecosystems, which people’s livelihoods depend on. Orchards in which bananas, mangos, jackfruit, dragon fruit, coconut, and cashews are produced characterize the mountain slopes (24:4; 27:17). In the better accessible areas on the lower slopes sugarcane, pineapple, and corn is produced (37:2). The lowlands are mainly used to cultivate rice. Exceptions are the fields next to highway No. 1 to grow various vegetables that are harvested daily for local markets. Moving further towards the coast the rice fields merge seamless into shrimp ponds.

The shrimp ponds are not only used to culture shrimp (Tom su) but also mud crabs (Cua), and grouper (Ca muh) (31:21; 33:14; 30:21; 72:3).

Extending this bird’s eye view over the water surface of the lagoon, further agro-ecosystems emerge. Large areas are occupied by cage culture structures producing lobster (Tom hum) and Babylon Snail (Oc houng) (48:1; 70:10; 49:1). Natural enclosed areas around the islands are used to culture grouper (75:5). And last but not least there are areas where Green Mussel (Vem xanh) is cultured on wooden pillars in the lagoons shallow waters (16:3).

Figure 37. Small-scale animal husbandry of pigs in Ha Lien.

Animal husbandry is very extensive and only developing slowly (56:13; 93:1). The main species in random order are goat, beef cattle, pigs, water buffalos, ducks and chicken. The water buffalos are exclusively reared for their draft power to work in the rice fields and exported to the Mekong area in the South of Vietnam. Small flocks of goats graze the few wastelands and every now and then one can see a small group of beef cattle that graze on the harvested rice fields (30:3). Few families keep one or two pigs to utilize household waste products (Figure 37). More common is poultry production with ducks and chicken (Figure 54, Annex).

However livelihoods seldom rely on only one of these agro-ecosystems (26:21; 30:3). In general each household pursues several livelihood strategies to make a living combining agriculture, aquaculture, and trading activities with either one or more fishing techniques (26:21; 27:17; 27:3).

The survey conducted with 72 households around Nha Phu Lagoon revealed the main characteristics of coastal communities as followed:

• On average a household had four children, whereby the number of children varied from zero to nine persons.

• From each household one to six family members (average 2,3) work in fishing or aquaculture.

• The average household head’s age is 43 years, ranging from 19 to 75 years.

• The main occupations are fishing, aquaculture, agriculture, and trading.

• On average respondents had worked 20 years in their job.

District

Municipality

Village

Population

Households

Occupational structure (%)

Fishing

Aquaculture

Trading, etc.

Agriculture

Nha Trang

Vinh Luong

Luong Son

3398

650

31

-

46

23

Vo Tanh

2751

453

30

20

-

50

Van Dang

4212

798

31

34

-

35

Cat Loi

1040

223

58

14

-

28

Ninh Hoa

Ninh Ich

Tan Thanh

1000

220

55

-

-

-

Ngoc Diem

1813

410

6

45

-

49

Tan Dao

-

-

-

-

-

-

Ninh Loc

Tan Thuy

1433

243

90

10

-

-

Tam Ich

1240

225

65

35

-

-

Ninh Ha

Tan Te

800

154

70

30

-

-

Ha Lien

-

220

-

-

-

-

Ninh Phu

Le Cam

316

61

-

-

-

-

Table 7. Major characteristics of studied villages.

The majority of households are involved in some form of aquatic resource use either as a primary occupation or as a component of wider livelihood strategies. In general the occupational structures of coastal communities around Nha Phu Lagoon can be divided into five main categories:

• Nearshore fishing

• Offshore fishing

• Aquaculture

• Agriculture

• Trading and others (cf. Thuong 2000,48).

After the reunification in 1975 many people left as boat people and settled in the USA (cf. STREAM 2000,15). Many of them have been back to visit and provide family remittance to relatives living in Vietnam often serving as a perpetual source of income for households in some communities (19:27).

The educational level in the coastal communities of Ninh Hoa is low, i.e. mostly primary school level with a fair amount of illiteracy (Thuong 2000,50). Own experience lead to the decision that the questionnaire was to be filled out together with the research assistant, since many respondents where not able to read the questionnaire. Access to higher education is restricted as the two high schools in the area are in Ninh Hoa and Nha Trang and there is neither transportation service to the schools nor could families afford to pay for it (31:24). Only villages in close proximity send a few of their kids to school. Moreover, children help with the household work and other labor, e.g. repairing of fishing nets and hence do not go to school (44:7).

Housing facilities vary considerably from the richer households in the district of Nha Trang and the rather poor households in the district of Ninh Hoa. Concrete houses and tiled roofs characterize the former, houses made of clay and bamboo mat walls, coconut leaf roofs and at best concrete floors characterize the latter. In between one can find any possible combination depending on the household income (Figure 53, Annex). That housing conditions allow income classification is justified by the local perception of two fishermen in Ngoc Diem who define rich as owning a “nice house” and living a “balanced life” (25:25).

The average household income is about 1 million VND (63 USD) per month (18:7; 25:5). The poorer household’s average is about 600 000 VND (38 USD) per month (31:14; 47:4) and the richer households approximately 4.2 million VND (264 USD) per month (33:13; 23:3). These figures are approximations, because the higher the income the more obscure are the answers to the questions concerning monthly incomes.

Based on a livelihood assessment from the STREAM (Support to Regional Aquatic Resources Management) initiative (2000,14) carried out in several areas including the districts of Ninh Hoa and Nha Trang, 80 per cent of the households in coastal communities rely on fish capture and aquatic resource use. A fisherman in Vo Tanh expresses this finding: “Every job in town is related to fishing” (23:10) see also Table 7: Major characteristics of studied villages. To receive an impression of the habits and everyday life in Nah Phu Lagoon I went on a three-hour boat trip with the village leader and several fishermen from Tam Ich Village. A full description of this trip is found in the following text box.

Tam Ich

18.11. 2003

We drive to the island of Hon Coc (this is the small island visible on the satellite image directly above Tan Dao) and back in a circle coming close to Ha Lien. For the first time I see the new fish traps (Nghe dang day), that they have built and there are many. Maybe 100 or so cover the entire shallow area of the bay or better the long side of it. The traditional traps (Giang) are very different and with the boat you can easily drive through them. Besides all the other negative effects it has on the fishery resources, this is another one to be considered.

On the way we also meet a fisherman using electric fishing equipment. There are plenty of fishermen setting and controlling crab nets and traps. Later on the way back the tide is down further and we see many people using rakes to collect mussels. Around Hon Coc Island is a lot of Green Mussel culture and the positive side effects cannot be overseen. Big ships cannot pass the area easily because of the many underwater constructions growing the Green Mussels. A fisherman uses a cast net between the wooden polls and catches a large number of big sized fish with one cast. We purchase Green Mussels from one of the fishermen there and observe many small fish schools moving in between the wooden stilts used to support the Green Mussels.

There is a considerable amount of mangroves around the sides of the shrimp ponds and on the seaside of Hon Vung. Nevertheless, one can imagine what large numbers of them have been cut to create the large area covered with shrimp ponds. There are quite a few sites, where we see replanting efforts of mangroves. However, in some places the shoots look very good and seem to develop well, while in other places they look weak and are stagnating in growth.

The shallow area has been 2.5 meter deep in the past, now it is only about 1.5 meter deep. Overall the lagoon is bustling with people and everybody is pursuing some sort of fishing method using small, unmotorized boats. Indeed, we are the only motorized boat on the water for three hours. The area covered with the new fish traps is not suited for dragnet fishing because it is too shallow. Interestingly the old men tell me, that dragnet fishing is not done anymore in the back of the lagoon because the villagers got angry with the violators and forced them out of the area. Nowadays the dragnet fishermen only fish until the island of Hon Thi and not further. Big fish like porpoise^* (Ca heo) were plentiful in the past, also in the back of the lagoon, but now are only found around Hon Thi.

^* The fishermen actually used the Vietnamese word Ca nuoc, which translates into Dugong. This would be a scientific sensation, as Dugongs once common along Vietnam’s coast are nowadays nearly extinct and less than 10 animals are believed to live at Con Dao Island in the South of Vietnam.

In fact there are several types of fishinggears that are used in the communities around Nha Phu Lagoon. The types and common practices differ from village to village and their location in the lagoon. The majority of households use small, unmotorized boats to go fishing (30:2; Figure 55 Annex). In general these are the villages situated in the back of the lagoon, which engage in gill net fishing (24:5). The villages situated towards the front of the lagoon, i.e. in closer proximity to the open sea, use medium to large motorized ships equipped with engines between 45 to 210 hp and engage in trawling, while small boats equipped with engines between 12 to 20 hp use gill nets and hook and line for fishing (38:5; 38:6). The fishing areas also vary considerably, i.e. some fishermen only go fishing in the shallow waters of the lagoon, others go offshore fishing. Yet dependent on the season and the weather conditions fishermen with small boats will drive all the way to Nha Trang to set their nets close to the harbor and offshore fishermen with large boats will trawl the lagoon’s interior (25:9; 6:1; 23:4). The fishery resources comprised of several species, listed in the following Table 8 and including other snails, oysters and cockles that were not identified closer

The presented list of aquatic resources is preliminary in the sense that it only consists of the species respondents mentioned in interviews, during market visits or observations. The findings rely on the translation of Vietnamese names. Further verification and additional information concerning scientific, Vietnamese and English common names follow FishBase (www.fishbase.org), Squidfish.net (www.squidfish.net), Fistenet (www.fistenet.gov.vn), Blue Sea (www.bluesea21.com/marineproduct/marineproductshell.htm), Brzeski and Newkirk’s (2000,218-223) “Lessons from the Lagoon – Research towards Community Based Coastal Resources Management in Tam Giang Lagoon, Viet Nam”, and Tuan, Nho and Hambrey’s (2000,1-8) “Status of Cage Mariculture in Vietnam” (All websites accessed on 10.11. 2005). The classification refers to order, family, genus or species depending on the available information.

Source: (55:1; 77:1; 40:7; 18:2; 18:4; 18:5, 44:3;14:19; 70:14; 3:2; 75:4; 49:1; 92:2)

English name

Vietnamese name

Latin name or classification

Mullets

Ca doi, Ca la

Mugil sp.

Rabbitfish

Ca dia

Siganus sp.

Ponyfish

Ca liet

Leiognathus sp.

Herring

Ca trich

Clupeiformes

Goby

Ca bong

Oxyurichtys sp.

Butterfish

Ca chim

Psenopsis sp.

Lizardfish

Ca moi

Synodus/Saurida sp.

Cardinal fish

Ca son

Apogonidae

Croaker

Ca du

Sciaenidae

Anchovy

Ca com

Stolephorus sp.

Eel

Ca chinh

Anguilla sp.

Flounder, Sole

Ca bon

Pleuronectiformes

Grouper

Ca muh

Epinephelus sp.

Shark

Ca map

Carcharhinus sp.

Mackerel

Ca thu

Perciformes

Tunny

Ca ngu

Euthynnus sp.

Tuna

Ca thu long

Thunnus sp.

Hairtail

Ca ho

Trichiuridae

Bream

Ca dong

Nemipteridae

Bigeye

Ca thoc

Pricanthidae

Squid

Muc ong

Teuthoidae

Cuttlefish

Muc nang

Sepia and Sepiella sp.

Black tiger shrimp

Tom su

Penaeus monodon

Greasyback shrimp

Tom dat

Metapenaeus ensis

Mantis shrimp

Tom tit

Squilla sp.

Other shrimps

Tom

Penaeus sp.

Lobster

Tom hum

Panulirus sp.

Swimming crabs

Ghe

Portunus sp.

Mud crabs

Cua

Scylla sp.

Green mussel

Vem xanh

Perna viridis

Blood cockle

So huyet

Anadara granosa

Babylon snail

Oc huong

Babylonia areolata

Diphos sanguin

Phi

Hiatula diphos

Half-crenate Ark

So long

Anadara subcrenata

Undulating venus

Ngheu

Paphia undulata

Suminoe oyster

Hau

Crassostrea rivularis

Scallop

Diep

Pectinidae

Table 8. List of fish and invertebrate species exploited in Nha Phu Lagoon.

Fishing is the main pillar of aquatic resources utilization. The questionnaire revealed that 82 percent of the coastal fishery households engage in some sort of fishing activity. Fishing gear can be classified as nearshore and offshore fishing techniques. Regardless of this classification and with respect to what has been said earlier, fishing gear is used in near and offshore conditions. The following diagram gives an overview of the various types of fishing techniques and their respective use in percent. The presented figures include fishing techniques used in near and offshore fishing and are described in further detail below. Please note that several fishing techniques are not included in the diagram, because they were identified separately. From the 72 respondents in the questionnaire 54 percent of the fishermen apply more than one fishing technique.

Figure 38. Various gear types and fishing techniques and the percentage of their use in Nha Phu Lagoon.

Source: Questionnaires

The following fishing methods are used in nearshore fishing:

• Gill nets (Luoi cuoc, Luoi can, Luoi mai, Luoi ben, Luoi Thai, Luoi ba mang, Luoi cua/ghe/tom) are most commonly used among the fishermen in Nha Phu Lagoon after all 45 percent of the fishermen use them (20:4; 19:6; Figure 38). They are either operated from small, unmotorized boats or from boats equipped with engines between 12 to 20 hp (30:2; 38:6). The small, unmotorized boats are mainly used in the municipalities of Ninh Phu, Ninh Ha, Ninh Loc, and Ninh Ich (30:2; Figure 55, Annex). The motorized boats come mainly from the villages situated in Vinh Luong Municipality (38:6). There are two types of gill nets. One is the one-layer net and the other is the three-layer net or trammel net (Figure 38). Nowadays the one-layer net is only used in Vinh Luong Municipality to catch Ca mai

Unfortunately only the local Vietnamese name could be found. It is a small fish for export and sells for 12 000 VND per kilogram (6:8).

Ngoc Diem

22.12. 2003

We meet a fisherman who just came back from fishing. He was out for 6 hours and caught crab and shrimp worth 45 000 VND, which he sells to a middleman. He also keeps back a small portion of the catch, mainly fish and some shrimp. These he sells for another 30-40 000 VND, so he totals about 80 000 VND (5 USD) a day.

In the municipality of Vinh Loung there are an estimated 250 small boats equipped with engines that engage in gill net fishing (63:6; 62:7). The fishermen here are organized in self-formed groups depending on the engine size. For example, there is a 8 hp group and a 15 hp group that go fishing at the same time and search for the fish schools together (81:1). When a member sees a lot of fish, he calls the others over radio to share the fish (81:1). Fishermen from Nha Trang (Bon Bridge or Dung De) listen to the same radio frequency and also report frequently over the occurrence of fish or shrimp schools and then gather together to fish according to their perception: “The fish are for everyone” (81:3; 81:4).

• Dragnets (Gia cao) are also commonly used in Nha Phu Lagoon and come second, with 11 percent of fishermen using them although their use is strictly prohibited (18:1; 18:23; 23:4; 23:5; Figure 38). The dragnet is a cone-shaped net that is dredged along the sea floor with a motorized boat (Figure 39).

Figure 39. Dragnet for nearshore fishing.

The fish and shrimp are scooped up and collected in the cod end of the dragnet. To all appearances the mesh size of the cod end and often of the entire dragnet is about 10 mm. A 30 hp engine is required to pull a dragnet (64:12). The size of the dragnet varies according to the size of the boat (44:11). Approximately 300 small boats go trawling in Nha Phu Lagoon every day (64:12; 62:5; 65:3; 25:16). Additionally, as soon as the weather is bad the big offshore trawlers go fishing inside the Lagoon as well (58:2). The dragnet fishermen come mainly from Vinh Luong Municipality and the village of Tan Thanh (4:4). They go fishing in the entire lagoon, although fishermen distinguish between intensive dragnet fishing areas and the back of the lagoon, where they go fishing irregularly due to the higher risk of getting punished (6:1). According to a village leader the main fishing time is during the night between eight o’clock at night and four o’clock in the morning (29:3). The main catch consists of croaker, goby, cardinal fish, grouper, butterfish, black tiger shrimp, mantis shrimp and swimming crabs (70:14). Sometimes the fishermen catch adult black tiger shrimp which are sold as broodstock to the nearby shrimp hatcheries for prices between five and 10 million VND per individual (70:17).

• Electric fishing (Xiec dien) is another fishing technique widely practiced in Nha Phu Lagoon, although it is illegal (14:15; Figure 38). Seven percent of fishermen engage in electric fishing. Since electric fishing is carried out by wadding in the water it is restricted to the tidal zone in the back of the lagoon (20:31; 10:2; 53:16). Today electric fishing is still very common and approximately 100 to 200 fishermen operate electric fishing equipment (4:3; 14:15; 20:17; 20:31; 50:8; 75:15; 76:1; 83:2). Violators come from almost every village (10:3; 11:2). However, mainly they come from Hang Doi, Tan Thuy, Phu Huu, Tan Dao, and Ngoc Diem of which the villages Hang Doi and Phu Huu lay inlands (11:2; 50:8). Electric fishing was introduced to the area about four to seven years ago (20:17; 56:18; 50:6; 73:12). The electric fishing equipment is made of a huge wooden scoop net with a mesh size of 4 millimeter (56:5). At the end of the Y-shape structure there are two electric poles that transmit the voltage into the water (Figure 40).

Figure 40. Electric fisherman in Nha Phu Lagoon.

A transformer is used to transform the 9 volts from the battery to 300 volts (16:8). Electric fishing gear stuns small fish and shrimp, which then are scooped up by the net. Acquisition costs vary between 500 000 to 600 000 VND (16:8). This gear is operated through wading in the shallow water of the lagoon (53:16). The fishing time is relatively short approximately four hours and depends on the tides (56:12; 53:16). The main target specie is Greasyback shrimp of which two to three kg can be caught daily (56:10). However, the size of the Greasyback shrimps fishermen catch are relatively small (2-3 cm) and is reflected in the lower price he receives, namely 10 000 VND per kg instead of the usual 40 000 VND per kg (56:11; 56:10; 16:4). In addition, about 40 to 50 juvenile fish (1-2 cm) are caught which are sold as duck feed (56:4). Remarkable is that black tiger shrimp are not caught with electric fishing gear, because they jump out of the water and thus escape the net (56:3).

A modification of electric fishing is called Gia nui, where electric fishing equipment is attached to a dragnet to enhance its efficiency (25:17; 10:3). Villagers in Tan Te hold fishermen from Tan Thanh and Ngoc Diem responsible for using this fishing technique (10:3). Another technique is called Gia tiep, where they fish with electric poles between two boats and close to the sea floor covering a huge area (20:18). This technique is even more effective and can be used in deep water (20:18). The Marine Border Patrol has been vigorously fighting the development of this new fishing method with exemplary success (75:17; 20:19). Yet, the enforcement was not easy and on one occasion a policeman got injured (75:17).

• Diving (Lan) is not very common in Nha Phu Lagoon, although a few fishermen engage in this fishing technique (Figure 38). During the questionnaire only four divers were identified, whereby three of them go diving to catch lobster seed, which is a seasonal activity carried out from November to February. Only one of the interviewed divers goes diving as described below. Diving is carried out from boats with the use of a hookah, a small diesel engine with two attached lines that delivers compressed air to the divers. The divers wear wetsuits and masks. The main species targeted are lobster and grouper (43:1). From May to July grouper move from the open sea to the inshore reefs where divers use cyanide to stun them and catch them alive (80:6). The use of cyanide is quite simple. When divers go fishing underwater, grouper and other fish take cover in holes and cracks of coral reefs. After locating them the divers squirt some cyanide into their hiding place, stunning the fish and making it easy to catch them. The interviewed diver reports that when he uses too much cyanide, he feels drunk for a short time (80:8). Live grouper makes about 200 000 VND per kg, dead only 100 000 VND (80:6). The questionnaire revealed the following catch rates per day:

• 25 kg of grouper,

• 50 kg of fish,

• 25 kg of squid and cuttlefish, and

• 1.5 kg of lobster.

Particular fish and squid are caught with help of spear guns, lobsters by hand and grouper by use of cyanide.

• Crab traps (Rap ghe) are an alternative to gill nets and are used to catch swimming crabs (86:4). They are quite popular in Nha Phu Lagoon and 10 percent of the fishermen use them (Figure 38). The crab traps are of circular shape and made of wire, nylon rope, and plastic floats (Figure 56, Annex). Small pieces of chopped eel are used as bait and tied with the help of wire to the middle of the trap. The traps are set in one line, one by one for a period of time and collected daily. Crab traps are particularly popular in the shallow waters of Le Cam, Tan Thuy, and Tam Ich (3:4; 19:7; 83:5). The average catch is about 3 to 5 kg of crabs per day (cf. 52:7). Big swimming crabs are about 30 000 to 40 000 VND per kg (52:12). The smaller ones are used as lobster feed and sold to middlemen for about 6 000 VND per kg (52:12; 86:5).

• The deep-water traps or fish corals (No dang day) used in Nha Phu Lagoon were introduced only one month before this study was carried out, i.e. September 2003 (25:20). This new technology was brought in by newly settled outsiders from Ba Ngoi, Cam Ranh, Dong Bo and Binh Tri Thien (Tam Giang Lagoon) and is mainly operated by villagers from Than Thuy, Tan Dao, and Ha Lien (19:14; 32:23; 30:17; 50:8; 52:3). Within one month approximately 100 of the new traps were installed in the shallow waters of the tidal zone close to the river mouths (19:5). For exemplification, alone in Tan Thuy 40 to 50 people operate this new trap (32:23). The trap structure consists of wooden poles and a very fine mesh net with a mesh size between 0.5 and 4 millimeter (19:8; 30:17; 53:3). Since current regulations stipulate a minimum net size of 1.8 centimeter this makes deep-water trap fishing an illegal activity (19:8; 53:3). Figure 41 shows a shallow stake trap from Nam Dinh Province in the North of Vietnam that is very similar in design to the deep-water trap used in Nha Phu Lagoon (cf. Ruangsivakul and Siriraksophon 2002,246).

Figure 41. Shallow stake trap with measurements according to the deep-water trap used in Nha Phu Lagoon.

Source: adapted and modified from Ruangsivakul and Siriraksophon 2002,246

Since the traps are totally enclosed by fine mesh, it is impossible to drive through them by boat (3:1). The construction costs are about 3 million VND (189 USD) (52:5). Interestingly both rich and poor people engage in trap fishing (52:6). The operation of the trap is simple and easy and does not require any specific knowledge (32:22). The tapered sides of the trap guide fish and shrimp towards the end of the trap, where a cod end traps the catch. This principle of the fish coral is increased through its position in the intertidal zone and the current of the off running waters passing through it. The trap catches mainly Greasyback shrimp but also small fish like Ponyfish, Goby, and Cardinal (32:19; 53:2). Up to 4 kg of Greasyback shrimp can be caught daily (52:14). The average income per night is between 70 000 to 200 000 VND but can reach 500 000 VND (31 USD) (52:4; 32:22).

Due to the fine mesh nets used the traps require a lot of maintenance, i.e. the small netting clogs up quickly and needs weekly cleaning (32:29). In addition the wooden poles decompose quickly in the silty sea floor and need replacement every three months (53:7). The high labor requirement and maintenance cost has lead to a decrease in the numbers of deep-water traps in Nha Phu Lagoon (52:13; 53:7).

• Traditional traps (Giang) have been around for 50 years and about 10-12 traps operate in the area today (90:1; Figure 38). Their eye-catching wooden structure houses the winch that pulls the net and the fisherman that operates it and is situated in the river mouths of Nha Phu Lagoon (Figure 42).

Figure 42. Traditional fish coral with fixed lift net at the end.

In contrast to the new deep-water traps their sides are not enclosed by fine mesh nets but made of wooden poles that are set close to each other to form a boundary. In addition the sides of this V-shaped trap possess small openings, so boats can easily pass through (3:1). This is extremely important, because they are set with the predominant current, i.e. the opening of the fish trap is near the river mouth, while the trap end is down current. As mentioned before the structure is made of wooden poles set close to each other into the silty lagoon bottom and guiding fish and shrimp towards the point of the V, where a stationary or fixed lift net catches the fish and invertebrates. The net itself is square-shaped made of fine minnow net, which is then lowered to the bottom of the lagoon for a period of time and lifted again catching all the marine life that settled on it (Brzeski and Newkirk 2000,216).

• Cast nets (Chai) are used very little. Only on one occasion could I observe the use of a cast net close to aquaculture structures at Tan Dao (3:5). In consideration of the fact that I never met a fisherman that reported using a cast net and that none of the 72 respondents from the questionnaire used one either, I believe that the number of fishermen using this method is very small in comparison with other fishing techniques.

• Lift nets with light (Manh) are widely used in the municipalities of Ninh Ich and Vinh Luong to catch lobster fry, whereby alone in the town of Tan Thanh 100 boats use this fishing technique (13:7). Altogether eight percent of fishermen engage in this seasonal activity (Figure 32). The season for catching lobster fry is from November to February and many fishermen engage in this fishery during that time (18:5; 51:3). Due to the significantly higher income from lobster fry fishing, other fishing activities nearly stop completely during this four-month season (51:2). Lift net fishing with light is carried out from boats (Figure 57, Annex). The net is of triangular shape and anchored to the ground (51:3). To all appearances the mesh size used is between 4-5 mm. At two ends it is lifted to the surface by buoys. A strong light is used to attract the juvenile lobsters that settle on the netting and after some time the other end of the net is lifted from the bottom and the lobsters trapped (51:3). I could not determine the exact number of juvenile lobsters that can be caught per night. However, five fishermen in Vo Tanh stated that up to 50 million VND (3 146 USD) could be made per night (23:8). Juvenile lobsters caught this way are reported to be less healthy and suffer some eye damage from the strong lights used (51:4). This is also reflected in the price which is 5 000 to 10 000 VND below that of lobster fry caught with drilled coral blocks (51:6; 47:10).

• Coral blocks with drilled holes are the second technique used to catch lobster fry in the wild. Just like lift net fishing with light this is a seasonal fishing technique that is carried out from November to February (47:2). The juvenile lobsters are caught when settling in the drilled holes in the coral blocks hung from wooden structures in the shallow waters (47:1; Figure 58, Annex). The coral blocks are checked daily and the lobsters collected. Sometimes juvenile grouper are caught this way (43:2). The construction covers about 40 square meters and is enough to support the livelihood of one fisherman (47:8). Material cost is about 1,5 to 2 million VND and together with labor costs totals about 3 million VND (47:8). Inside Nha Phu Lagoon approximately 200 to 300 fishermen use this fishing technique (47:3). Due to the lower initial investment cost, particular boat and lighting, this technique is more common than lift net fishing with light, namely 10 percent (Figure 32). In the village of Ngoc Diem the same construction to catch lobster fry is used to culture green mussels (72:2). On average they catch one juvenile lobster per day and make about 500 000 to 700 000 VND per month (47:3). However, another fisherman catches about 5 to 10 small lobsters a day (43:2). A group of six lobster fry fishermen from Van Dang sell their lobster fry to middlemen who re-sell to the fishermen culturing lobsters (47:3). The reason for the fishermen to sell to the middlemen is that they have too few lobsters to sell to the lobster farmers directly (47:6). One juvenile lobster sells for about 60 000-130 000 VND depending on the market (47:5).

• Collection of juvenile mud crabs is combined with catching adult shrimp and crabs (88:1). However, some fishermen make most of their income through catching and selling mud crab fry (88:6; 86:1). This fishing technique is very simple and usually carried out at night using a headlamp and a small hand net wading in the shallow water (88:1). It is particularly common among fishermen in the town of Tam Ich (88:1). The interviewed fisherman catches about 5 to 50 juvenile mud crabs per night, the average is about 25 to 30 (88:2; 86:2). Generally they are sold for 1 000 VND per crab but prices vary depending on size between 500 and 2 500 VND per individual (86:7; 88:4). The fishermen sell their catch to middlemen who come to their houses daily and re-sell to pond owners (86:2).

• Collection of grouper seed (juveniles) is carried out throughout Nha Phu Lagoon, as there is considerable grouper cultivation taking place (30:21). I conjure up a conversation with a fisherman in Le Cam who was fishing for grouper seed. He constructs small stone pyramids close to the shore to attract juvenile grouper. From time to time he encloses the stone pyramids with a fine mesh net, removes them and catches the juvenile grouper. Another fisherman reported to use the same fishing technique as for catching lobster seed, i.e. hanging blocks of coral with drilled holes in which the juvenile grouper settle and can be collected. A middleman culturing grouper reported that one juvenile grouper can be bought for 1 000 VND (75:6). However, the availability of grouper seed is low, one only manages to buy 2 to 3 a day (75:6).

• Collection of bivalves is another livelihood strategy carried out in nearshore waters. Especially in the tidal zone in the back of Nha Phu Lagoon family members engage in the collection of mussels, shells and snails, in particular Half-crenate Ark, with the use of rakes (3:2). An interviewed fisherman’s wife and son go and collect about 5 to 6 kg of Diphos sanguin during low tide every day (54:4; 54:6). This species is used for lobster feed and sold to middlemen for 3 500 VND per kg (54:6). Another collected species traded in substantial amounts is Undulating Venus (75:4).

In contrast to nearshore fishing there is offshore fishing. The following fishing methods are used in offshore fishing:

• Dragnets (Gia cao) are one of the most important types of fishing gear used for offshore fishing in Vietnam (Ruangsivakul and Siriraksophon 2002,17). In contrast to nearshore trawling offshore dragnet fishing requires bigger engines. The design of the dragnet is the same as for those used in nearshore conditions. The main differences are the bigger mesh size of the wing and the use of otter boards made of wood or steel that prop open the mouth of the net horizontally, which is why this method is also called bottom otter board trawl (Ruangsivakul and Siriraksophon 2002,17). In the municipality of Vinh Luong alone 300 big boats engage in offshore trawling (64:11; Figure 59, Annex). Trawling has a long tradition in the area and has been around for 70 years according to a fisherman’s testimony who has been dragnet fishing since 40 years (64:4). The engine size of the vessels ranges from 45 to 210 hp (38:5). The bigger trawling boats are worth 350 million VND (24 000 USD) each (23:1). Small boats go fishing for 1 to 5 days depending on the weather and the availability of money for gasoline (44:3). However, even boats that go on one-day trips go outside the lagoon to Hon Cha La Island (44:3). Big boats go on fishing trips that last up to 10 days and to fishing grounds located about 160 km off the coast (23:6). Basically they catch everything (23:6). Yet the main species are hairtail, ponyfish, bigeye, bream, squid and cuttlefish (44:3). During short fishing trips (3 days) the average catch is around 70 kg, whereby 50 kg are trash fish, 2 to 3 kg are shrimp and the rest are marketable fish for human consumption (64:2). The trash fish are used as shrimp and lobster feed and sell for about 3 000 VND per kg (64:2). Middle sized boats with engines of 45 hp and during longer fishing trips (10 days) average catches of 800 to 1 200 kg, whereby 200 to 800 kg maybe trash fish, 20 to 50 kg are crabs, 130 to 300 kg are shrimp, 75 to 150 kg are squid and cuttlefish, and about 150 to 400 kg are fish for human consumption.

In addition to the bottom otter board trawl mentioned above there is bottom pair trawl, i.e. two boats pulling one dragnet (6:5). During the questionnaire two from 13 interviewed dragnet fishermen were identified using this method. Findings from group discussions and house visits revealed that the trash fish landings from this fishing operation could be up to 100 plastic bags, equaling between 300 to 400 kg (6:5; 70:19; Figure 60, Annex). However, the two interviewed pair trawl fishermen pursue two different strategies. Both of their fishing trips last 10 days. One of them discards all trash fish he catches (approximately 600 kg) because of lack of ice, i.e. to ensure the quality of the captured fish. He catches 60 kg of crabs, 100 kg of shrimp, 1000 kg of fish and 100 kg of squid and cuttlefish. The other fisherman catches a similar amount, i.e. 100 kg of crabs, 110 kg of shrimp, 1000 kg of fish and 60 kg of squid and cuttlefish. In addition, he catches 600 kg of trash fish, which he keeps.

• Hook and line (Nghe cau) fishing is used in the deeper waters of Nha Phu Lagoon and the open sea (18:2). The main target species are shark and tuna (18:2; 40:7). According to the target species the construction of the longline gear is different but mainly consists of a continuous mainline supported by float lines with regularly spaced leaders that end with baited hooks (cf. Ruangsivakul and Siriraksophon 2002,189). This fishing technique is common in Luong Son and Tan Thanh (63:7; 18:2).

• Gill net fishing (Luoi can) is particularly labor intensive and involves many family members (18:4). In addition, offshore gill net fishing requires a lot of experience to allocate fish and thus is not very common. A fisherman in Tan Thanh catches mainly mackerel this way (18:4).

• Diving is not really carried out in offshore conditions but in close proximity to islands off the coast, like Hon Tre Island situated in the Hon Mun Marine Protected Area (18:3). Just like other offshore fishing techniques this is seasonal and only pursued six months a year (18:3). An interviewed fisherman in Tan Thanh for example swaps to gill net fishing, when the sea is too rough during the winter months (18:3).

Table 9 summarizes the type of fishing gear used in Nha Phu Lagoon and in offshore waters. Further particulars include the time of fishing, the type of fish caught and the spatial distribution of the fishing gear. Although most of the fishing activities are carried out all year-round, there are some restrictions attributed to the stormy weather conditions during the winter months (Nov.-Feb.). Yet, some fishing activities are strictly seasonal such as lift net fishing with light and hanging drilled coral blocks in the water, due to the temporal occurrence of the targeted juvenile lobsters. The most important fishing gears gill net and dragnet are used in the entire lagoon with exception of the tidal zone in case of the dragnet. Other type of fishing gear is used more in the back or the front of the lagoon or around certain villages according to the targeted species, locality and customs.

Fishing gear

Time

Type of fish

Spatial distribution

Nearshore :

Gill net

All year (restricted from November-February)

Pelagic fish/shrimp/crabs

Everywhere

Dragnet

All year (restricted from November-February)

Pelagic/demersal fish (trash fish)/shrimp/crabs

Everywhere excluding tidal zone

Electric fishing

All year

Greasyback shrimp/juvenile fish

Tidal zone

Diving

All year (restricted from November-February)

Grouper/lobster/squid

Around islands

Crab traps

All year

Crabs

Back of the lagoon

Deep-water trap

All year

Greasyback shrimp/juvenile fish

Tidal zone

Traditional trap

All year

Greasyback shrimp/juvenile fish

River mouths

Lift net with light

November-February

Lobster fry

Front of the lagoon

Coral blocks

November-February

Lobster fry

Front of the lagoon

Headlamp

All year

Mud crab seed

Around Tam Ich

Collection of grouper seed

-

Grouper seed

Around Le Cam

Collection of bivalves

All year

Mussels/snails/shells

Tidal zone

Offshore :

Dragnet

March-October

Pelagic/demersal fish (trash fish) /shrimp/squid/crabs

Outside lagoon

Hook and line

March-October

Shark/tuna

Outside lagoon

Gill net

March-October

Mackerel

Outside lagoon

Diving

March-October

Grouper/lobster/squid

Around Hon Tre

Table 9. Fishing gear used in near and offshore conditions, seasonality, type of fish caught, and spatial distribution in Nha Phu Lagoon.

Aquaculture is the second biggest pillar of aquatic resources utilization. The questionnaire revealed that 18 percent of the coastal fishery households engage in aquaculture. In reference to the differentiation of financial inputs required for the various production systems in aquaculture a distinction can be made between high-input and low-input aquaculture. The following diagram shows the frequency of occurrence of the various aquaculture activities (Figure 43).

Figure 43. Distribution of aquaculture activities in Nha Phu Lagoon and their frequency.

Source: Questionnaires

The following high-input aquaculture production systems are pursued in Nha Phu Lagoon:

• Shrimp farming is a widespread and most profitable livelihood strategy in aquaculture (cf. marginal costing). 22 percent of the aquaculturists interviewed in the questionnaire are culturing shrimp (Figure 43). Yet, group discussions and house visits revealed that several hundred households engage in intensive and semi-intensive forms of shrimp farming (15:2; 33:2; 78:4; 78:8). In addition, 47 shrimp larvae hatcheries are situated on the coast between Luong Son and Cat Loi. These hatcheries not only supply the shrimp farmers in the area but also deliver their shrimp larvae all the way to shrimp farms in the Mekong delta in the South of Vietnam. Shrimp farming is carried out in ponds of various sizes. On average one shrimp farmer owns about one hectare but some people own up to 20 hectares (22:4). A shrimp farmer reported that whoever cleared the land to construct a pond became legal owner of the land (22:4). Another owner reported that he rented land from the government for five years and constructed a shrimp pond (28:2). The loan for one hectare over 20 years is said to be four to five million VND (28:6). Hence, the acquisition of pond area is possible for those, who possess capital resources and the management skills necessary for investing in shrimp culture. Ponds developed on tidal mudflats, salt marshes, straddling river mouths, and near estuarine islands formerly covered by mangroves (Cay duoc) and other trees (33:11). The ponds are situated in the intertidal areas in order to utilize tidal currents for the supply and drainage of brackish and salt water (Figure 30; Figure 44).

Figure 44. View towards Nha Phu Lagoon with shrimp ponds in the foreground, Ninh Ich Municipality.

According to fishermen in Tan Te 95 percent of mangroves have been cleared for the construction of shrimp ponds (20:8). Most of the shrimp ponds in Nha Phu Lagoon were constructed after the mid 1980’s, although some of the shrimp ponds around Tam Ich are reported to have existed since 1975 (33:11; 50:3). The total area of shrimp ponds in the municipalities could not be determined exactly. However, several hundred hectares, minimum 350 hectares, of mangroves were cleared to make way for shrimp ponds (54:10; 50:4; 33:16). Alone in the area of Tam Ich only three from 100 hectares of mangroves are left (33:16).

Production techniques

The shrimp larvae take about four months to grow to market size (34:7). There are two seasons a year (34:7). The rest of the time is usually used to dry out the ponds and prepare them for the next season, i.e. to remove excess mud, plough the bottom of the pond and deploy lime for sterilization (73:3; 87:5). After filling the pond with fresh water from the lagoon through drainage channels the water is either treated for intensive shrimp culture or left untreated if extensive shrimp culture is pursued. Water treatment includes chlorination to kill bacteria and fungus, control algae, and promote good water quality with BKC 80 (Benzalkonium chloride Ethanol 80%) or Hydro 2,4 MKC (Myristalkonium Chloride, 80% Isopropyl alcohol, 15% Hydroxy-2,4-Dinitrofluorobenzene) for example. Other measurements include the use of Saponin to either kill off adult fish, larvae, and eggs or as a molting enhancer. Following the preparation of the pond, post-larvae shrimp fry is stocked with stocking densities of 20 individuals per square meter and a price of 40 VND per shrimp (cf. marginal costing; 34:5). At these high stocking densities mechanical aeration is used to maintain oxygen levels. Less intensive production systems waive pond aeration. Originally, trash fish was used to feed the shrimp and still is used nowadays but to a lesser extent (78:17). Today, mostly pelleted shrimp food is used (78:17). Among other duties of the daily working routine, are for example, monitoring of growth and health.

Deeper insights were gained when visiting a manager of several ponds situated near Tam Ich. The manager was a graduate from the Fishery University in Nha Trang with a degree in aquaculture. The following shrimp pond calculation shall exemplify the profits within reach. The output was calculated with 4 000 kg of shrimp sold at an average price of 80 000 VND per kg. However, shrimp prices vary from 70 000 to 90 000 VND per kg. On the other hand shrimp are not always harvested at optimum size (5 000 kg/ha) but according to market prices and the threat of disease outbreak (4 000 kg/ha).

Shrimp pond calculation (1 ha)

Input

Initial Investment:

Land purchase

30 million VND

Pond construction

40 million VND

Machines

30 million VND

Sub-total:

100 million VND

Working capital:

Shrimp fry

8 million VND

Shrimp food

60 million VND

Medicine, Chemicals

40 million VND

Salary, others

30 million VND

Sub-total:

138 million VND

Total:

238 million VND

Output

Shrimp 4000 to 5000 kg

70-90 000 VND/kg

Total:

320 million VND

Net benefit:

82 million VND (1 ^st season)

Net benefit:

182 million VND (2 ^nd season)

• Lobster culture is the second most important economic activity in aquaculture and has the same frequency of occurrence than shrimp culture, namely 22 percent (Figure 43). The main area of lobster culture is between Cat Loi Village and Hon Cu Lao Island towards the opening of Nha Phu Lagoon. Over 100 lobster farmers occupy this area (48:1). There is a second area designated for lobster culture for people from Vinh Loung Municipality situated on the shore of Hon Heo Peninsula across from Loung Son Village, where further 100 people are culturing lobster (70:10). Due to the many rivers entering Nha Phu Lagoon and reducing its salinity the lagoon is not suitable for lobster fattening (48:3). This is the case from August to November when the Giang River brings lots of fresh water and changes the salinity in the lagoon (59:1). In general lobster fattening takes about 18 months (48:3). There have been attempts to grow out lobster but they grow slowly and their body weight is much lower than that of lobsters grown elsewhere (59:1). For this reason lobsters are only cultured from November to February (48:4). In these four months juvenile lobsters are purchased or caught and reared from two centimeter (70-80 000 VND) to about 10 centimeter (140-150 000 VND) in length (48:2; 82:2). These lobsters are then sold to lobster farmers from Cam Ranh District (Cam Ranh Bay) and Van Ninh District (Van Phong Bay) for ongrowing (48:3). In the eight months of the year where no lobster culture takes place, the lobster farmers maintain equipment (48:4; 82:3).

Figure 45. Lobster cage.

The lobsters are cultured in submerged cages made of iron and nylon netting (Figure 45). They are of rectangular shape covering an area of about 12 square meters. The height is about 1 to 1.5 meters. The cage or better yet the lobsters inside are fed through a plastic tube. These submerged cages are positioned in sheltered areas in the lagoon with help of wooden stakes embedded in the sea floor. According to Edwards, Tuan and Allan (2004,37) cages cost 2-3 million VND each and farmers from Vung Me Village on Hon Tre Island owned 20 cages each on average. Fishermen farm sizes in Nha Phu Lagoon are slightly bigger, as the initial production costs were said to be about 100 million VND (79:5). The annual maintenance costs amount to about 20 million VND (82:2). The lobsters are fed with chopped trash fish, mantis shrimp and Diphos sanguin (64:3; 54:6; 80:9). Tuan, Nho and Hambrey (2000,9) reported 70 percent of the diet comprising of finfish and 30 percent of shellfish. They determined lizardfish (Saurida sp.) to be the preferred fish. The food conversion ratio

The food conversion ratio (FCR) is the ratio of the gain in body weight to the amount of feed fed. This means that 28 kg of trash fish is necessary to produce 1 kg of lobster live weight. Therefore, the lower the FCR is, the better is the efficiency.

• Although none of the respondents from the questionnaire reported to culture grouper, grouper culture occurs and was identified during group discussions and house visits. Yet, only few households have experience in it particularly in the villages Le Cam, Tan Dao, Ngoc Diem and Cat Loi (30:21; 31:20; 72:3; 49:2). Grouper culture is usually done in ponds (30:21). Groupers are said to be very hardy and have no special requirements concerning water quality or salinity (30:21). They take about eight months to grow from a fingerling to one kilogram (30:21). The feed requirement is said to be low (30:21). In Le Cam Village live fish was used as feed (30:21). Tuan, Nho and Hambrey (2000,9) determined that whole trash fish is an exclusive feed source for grouper culture. The food conversion ratio of grouper using a trash fish diet is 5.9 (Edwards, Tuan and Allan 2004,23). Fingerlings sell for 1 000 VND each, however the availability of grouper seed seems to be restricted (75:6). In Le Cam 2 000 grouper were raised in a 3 000 square meter pond resulting in a stocking density of 1 individual per 1.5 square meter of pond (30:21). Pond raised grouper sells for about 80 000 VND per kg (49:2). Yet, price fluctuation seemed one of the biggest problems in grouper culture (30:21). During the SEA Games a middleman in Ngoc Diem sold grouper for 90 000 VND per kg, although she usually only makes 60 000 VND per kg (75:5). Then again in Le Cam prices were as low as 37 000 VND per kg during the time of the field study (October 2003) (30:21). Nevertheless, grouper culture seems very suitable for Nha Phu Lagoon (75:8).

• Babylon snails are cultured just like lobsters in submerged cages, although it is not very common the questionnaire revealed that four percent of the interviewed aquaculturists culture Babylon snails (Figure 43).

Low-input aquaculture is characterized through significantly lower capital requirements for initial investment. The following low-input production systems were identified:

• Green mussel culture is very common in Nha Phu Lagoon, with 41 percent of aquaculturists culturing them (16:3; Figure 43). The main area is between Ngoc Diem and Tan Thuy, including Tan Dao Village (32:18). The best quality is said to come from Tan Dao because of the right salinity (32:18). Green mussels are not only cultured for their flesh but also for their shells, which are used to produce nacre handicraft (13:8). The price for 1 kg of green mussels is between 4 000 VND and 6 000 VND, their shells sell for 10 000 VND per kg (13:8; 31:18; 32:13). Green mussel fry can be purchased for 10 000 VND per kg with each kg containing about 20 mussels (16:3). Green mussels settle naturally on the culturing facilities and in general need not be purchased (32:18). The culturing facilities to grow green mussel are simply wooden or concrete pillars that are embedded in the sea floor. Eight pillars are positioned on one square meter (32:18). The dense construction assures that green mussels settle naturally on the pillars (32:18). The village leader of Tan Dao reported that currently 300 square meters of green mussel culture are enough to make a living (32:18). Every day one can harvest 10 kg of mussels to take to the market and make about 40 000 to 60 000 VND each time (32:13).

A variation of green mussel culture is culturing oysters (Hau) that use the same culturing facilities (92:2). However, only one fisherman culturing oysters could be identified. He buys small oysters for 3 000 VND a piece and sells them for 6 000 VND each after culturing (92:3).

• Mud crab culture is another livelihood strategy that utilizes shrimp ponds and requires relatively low-input compared to the high-input requirements of intensive shrimp farming. Mud crab culture is usually the consequence of total losses in shrimp farming (31:21). Mud crabs are often polycultured together with black tiger shrimp (21:6; 87:4). After all 11 percent polyculture mud crabs, whereby one man included in this figure solely cultures mud crabs (Figure 43). There is no season for mud crabs but rather they are cultured all year around (87:4; 86:1). Juvenile mud crabs are continuously brought in to stock the pond (87:4). On the other hand I observed how adult mud crabs were continuously trapped with baited crab traps and selected for their size, i.e. the ponds are not drained regularly to harvest the crabs, instead mud crab culture is a permanent utilization of ponds. I further observed how shrimp were captured with conventional cast nets in the pond and also selected for their size. However, a respondent in Tam Ich polyculturing mud crabs and shrimp dries out his pond every two years to provide a “good environment” for the shrimp (87:4). The same man reported how shrimp and crab are fed together from the start and later when crabs develop further are fed an additional 2 to 3 kg of chopped fish daily (87:4). The juvenile mud crabs are purchased for 2 000 VND each (33:14). Stocking densities vary, a man in Tam Ich for example polycultures 4 000 crabs in a 13 000 square meter pond (33:14). Three months are required to raise mud crabs to marketable size (33:14). About 15 big mud crabs make 1 kg, which sells for 25 000 VND (86:7). Big crabs are sold to wholesalers and exported to China (21:7).

The following map visualizes the majority of livelihood strategies in fisheries and aquaculture in Nha Phu Lagoon (Figure 46). It is also a reminder of the complexity of the resource system. Additionally, it is an expansion of Table 9 to further illustrate the spatial distribution of certain fishing gear, areas of aquaculture, resource distribution, and critical locations. This includes major fishing gear routes, coral reefs and breeding grounds and areas known for illegal fishing and conflict. The map is a synthesis of 12 resource maps drawn in each of the villages bordering Nha Phu Lagoon. Please see the Appendix for the detailed resource maps of each village. Comparing the resource maps from different villages it is striking to note that five villages display the lagoon as a circle, including only villages in close proximity. Hence, the maps are an expression of the different forms of perception in each village. This effect is validated when looking at the villages Tan Dao and Cat Loi for example, who characterize confined areas in the immediate vicinity of the village (Annex). Despite the differences there are similarities particularly concerning fishing areas, areas of conflict and local knowledge on breeding grounds. These findings are especially important for the introduction of integrated management strategies for the sustainable use of coastal fishery resources. Interesting is that likewise, violators using illegal fishing techniques and fishermen fishing with legal fishing gear are both aware of the respective fishing areas, conflict areas and breeding grounds. This underlines the fact that local resource users are especially aware of the multitude of fishing areas and capable to develop management strategies that encompass the multiple interests of the stakeholders.

Figure 46. Resource map of Nha Phu Lagoon with indicated areas of fishing, aquaculture, resource distribution, and critical locations.

Agriculture is another major livelihood strategy adding stability to household incomes (47:13). Some families in Van Dang, for example, supplement their daily income with 30 000 to 40 000 VND from agricultural activities (47:13). The following production systems are common in the vicinity of Nha Phu Lagoon:

• Rice is the major crop in the area. However, only few households in the coastal communities engage in rice farming, first and foremost Ngoc Diem Village (25:19).

• Fruit trees are more commonly cultivated encompassing bananas, mangos, jackfruit, dragon fruit, and coconut (26:21; 24:4; 27:17).

• In Le Cam Village cashew nut trees are popular (27:17; 30:3; 83:4). This cash crop sells for 7 000 VND per kg and one tree produces about 7 kg of nuts (30:3; 27:17).

• Sugarcane, pineapple, and corn are cultivated in more favorable areas (37:2).

• Animal husbandry is the least common agricultural activity and often only carried out for subsistence by keeping a few ducks (Figure 54, Annex). Only one household breeding cows could be identified (30:3; Figure 61, Annex).

Trading and other forms of alternative incomes include:

• Middlemen and traders in particular trade fish, fish products, and products related to aquaculture and fishery (20:2; 20:3; 25:7; 52:9; 56:8; 78:10, 19:3).

• Day laborer work in the sugar cane processing plant, the Hyundai ship building, or the seafood processing company No. 17 (21:9; 27:11; 31:13). A considerable amount of laborers work in shrimp farming, especially cleaning out and preparing shrimp ponds (15:4; 27:11; 28:4). The rest find jobs on fishing boats (42:5).

• Private entrepreneurs run food stalls, cafes, small shops, drive busses, repair and manufacture fishing nets, and produce charcoal (25:7; 30:4; 36:5; 42:2; 63:3).

• Artisans work as mechanics, carpenters and construction workers (42:6; 43:4; 56:9; 61:8).

According to the Ministry of Fisheries the percentage use of the marine finfish landings in Vietnam is as follows: 20 percent go into export, 20 percent are for fresh human consumption, 25 percent are used as animal feed and fish meal, and 25 percent are used for the manufacture of fish sauce (Edwards, Tuan and Allan 2004,23). The missing 10 percent account for waste because of poor storage (cf. Edwards, Tuan and Allan 2004,23). The marketing of fish, shrimp, crabs and other capture and culture products, including shrimp fry or grouper fingerlings is complex (FAO 2005). Various species, product forms, marketing channels, and markets exist both in the public and private sector.

The private sector in the different sub-sectors of fisheries consists of very different entities. The smallest form is the fishery household. Fishery households not only engage in fishing but also market their catch and other fishery products (32:13; 47:5). Either the catch is sold directly to middlemen or members of the fishery households, namely women market the catch on local markets (44:4; 40:1; 20:5). Apart from formal local markets there are informal markets near roads and bridges, where consumers purchase fish and fishery products directly. Some of these markets are specialized, e.g. a woman at Bong Bridge in Nha Trang sells only crabs and bivalves and is one of the biggest buyers of shellfish and mussels from Nha Phu Lagoon (75:4; Figure 62, Annex). On one occasion, I witnessed an informal market under Kai Bridge in Nha Trang that was trading shark, tuna, and sailfish from offshore fishermen under poor hygienic conditions, unloading fish parts in the contaminated water and applying chemicals to recondition some of the apparently decayed fish (Figure 63, Annex).

Informal and formal markets

According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), informal markets are characterized as follows: Easy market access, i.e. no or only little entry barriers exist; family businesses dominate; preferred local resources are used; small-scale enterprises dominate; use of relative labor intensive adapted technologies; acquisition of necessary skills outside the formal education system; utilization of unregulated markets that are subject to open competition and; occasionally illegal economic activities are used as identification criteria.

The main advantage of the informal market is its ability to respond quickly to changes in general conditions. Furthermore, it is characterized by an enormous improvisation and innovation capacity. In general, market partners in the informal sector abandon formal agreements. Nowadays, informal market systems are recognized and seen as transformative step to formal market systems.

However, the informal sector does not exist isolated from the formal sector but rather is connected with it through product and factor markets.

In contrast to the informal market, political and economical institutions characterize the formal market. Thereby, product hygiene is of particular importance, i.e. the conversion of informal channels of distribution to capture, handling, collection, processing, and packaging subject to a continuous cold chain. However, one must bear in mind that the formalization of the informal sector neglects the economic interests of the poor, if they are not organized in cooperation’s for example. For this reason, the infrastructural and institutional access to supply and sales markets is considered as the essential element of this process. (BMZ 1999)

The middlemen who collect large quantities of fishery products resell to wholesalers, who in turn sell to the fishery processing factories, e.g. the state-owned processing factory No. 17 (75:3; 75:4; 74:1). The underlying reason for this behavior is that, first of all, only few merchants have established business ties to the processing company and no other salesmen are allowed onto the company premises and, second of all, that the company only pays suppliers once a month, a business practice only few middlemen can afford as they need immediate payment to cover their expenses (75:3). However, the middlemen also provide the fishermen with credits for supplies, finances for off-season needs or assistance with vessel purchase, with the obligation that the fishermen have to sell their catch to them at a lower market price (30:23; 75:12; 65:7; 82:7; 91:4). For example in the town of Ngoc Diem, few middlemen own almost all of the fishing boats and control the majority of fish, shrimp and crab trade (75:12; 72:4; 74:1). Moreover, middlemen have constructed shrimp ponds and have rented them out to shrimp farmers (72:7). But the middlemen not only control the fresh fish sales, they also purchase cockles, trash fish and lobster seed, which enables them to supply lobster farmers with the demanded quantities of feed and seed (47:3; 86:5; 47:6; 54:6; 82:1; 82:7). Intermediaries also control the mud crab market, i.e. they supply shrimp pond owners with mud crab fry and purchase the fattened crabs (86:1; 21:7). In terms of economic growth the lobster farmers and particularly intensive shrimp farmers mark the biggest production units in the private sector (Lem et al. 2004,98; 48:5; 33:13). Accordingly large-scale are the 47 shrimp hatcheries that border Nha Phu Lagoon and which purchase broodstock from fishermen, while producing large quantities of shrimp fry for local area sales and further distribution to the Mekong Region (24:9; 70:17). The majority of processed aquaculture production (96 percent) is destined for export, although some fish from aquaculture is sold live to local or city restaurants, particularly grouper that is consumed raw in traditional Vietnamese dishes (FAO 2005; cf. 80:6; 75:5).

The public sector is dominated by state-owned processing plants and export companies. In the past the government involvement extended across the production and distribution of aquatic products, through fishing cooperatives, state and provincial fishing fleets, and processing industries (NORAD 2002b,12). Although the role of the government in the fishery sector has changed after the introduction of Doi Moi in 1986, the state and Provincial People’s Committees are still strongly involved in the processing industry (NORAD 2002b,12). However, it is expected that this might change in the next ten years as a result of the ongoing restructuring of the industry (NORAD 2002b,12). In Khanh Hoa Province this is the processing factory No. 17 (24:7; 25:4). The usual public sector role, i.e. the responsibility of the state is concerned with fisheries management (Fisheries Resources Protection Department and the Marine Border Police 368), research (Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 3 and the Institute for Oceanography in Nha Trang), education (Fisheries University in Nha Trang), extension (Fisheries Promotion Center in Nha Trang), as well as providing infrastructure services for harbors and market place facilities in the area (41:19; 58:1; 39:1; 46:1; 57:1; 57:10; 94:5).

As mentioned before, the main fish marketing channels used by fishermen and aquaculturists are direct sales to customers, sales at local markets, sales at landing sites and farm gates to intermediaries, and sales to restaurants (47:6; 80:9). In the questionnaire 80 percent of the respondents declared middlemen (intermediaries/wholesalers) their main marketing channel. Second came sales at formal local markets with 15 percent. The remaining five percent accounted for direct sales of small lobsters to lobster culturists outside Nha Phu Lagoon, who fatten them to market size (Figure 47).

Figure 47. Main marketing channels for fishery products.

Fish wholesalers operate through several channels with the most important being the supply of the fishery processing companies in Nha Trang, who sell the finished products on domestic and international markets (75:4; 72:4; 74:1; 21:7). Furthermore, the wholesalers and intermediaries supply markets, restaurants and sometimes sell directly to consumers (56:8; 75:4; 40:2; 40:3). Specialties are the intermediaries, who obtain fish from fishermen and sell to wholesalers who finally sell to the processing companies (74:1; 75:3). These last-stage wholesalers take advantage of their information surplus concerning market access and prices. The main marketing channels of fish products are depicted in the following diagram (Figure 47). The diagram includes channels for the provision of credits, trash fish feed from trawl fishermen via intermediaries to lobster culturists and the supply with juvenile lobsters (10 cm) via intermediaries and direct sales to lobster farmers outside Nha Phu Lagoon. Table 10 provides a selection of fishery products and their consumer prices.

Source: (40:9) 16 585 VND = 1 USD (20.03. 2006)

Product

Consumer prices

Vietnamese

English

VND/kg

Ca com

Anchovy

15-20 000 VND

Ca liet

Ponyfish

15 000 VND

Ca chim

Butterfish

15 000 VND

Ca ho

Hairtail

15 000 VND

Ca thu

Mackerel

30-35 000 VND

Ca thu long

Tuna

30-40 000 VND

Ca ngu

Tunny

30 000 VND

Muc nang

Cuttlefish

25 000 VND

Muc

Squid

30 000 VND

Tom su

Black Tiger Shrimp

40-50 000 VND

Tom dat

Greasyback Shrimp

30 000 VND

Table 10. Selection of fishery products and their consumer prices.

The markets of fish and fishery products have gradually improved over the past 20 years and many fishermen recall that although there were more fishery resources in the past, there were no markets to sell the fish (24:7; 25:3). Nowadays new market opportunities have led to a diversification in the shrimp dominated aquaculture industry including new species such as lobster, mud crabs, blood cockle, oysters, green mussel, Babylon snail, and grouper, which is also reflected in its own coding category “New market opportunities (shrimp, lobster, blood cockle, green mussel, grouper)” (92:2; 80:6; 75:9; 14:9; 14:3).

Vinh Hai Market

06.11 2003

A market visit to Vinh Hai Market in Nha Trang revealed that from nine interviewed saleswomen dealing with fishery products, three bought their products in Luong Son, two in Ninh Hoa, and one in Ha Lien (40:2). Only three saleswomen bought their products in Nha Trang, which is an indication that most of the fishery products marketed at Vinh Hai Market come from Nha Phu Lagoon (40:2). The saleswomen buy directly from fishermen, only one very old woman buys from an intermediate wholesaler (40:3; 40:4). The quantities of stock turnover range from 10 to 100 kg of fish (40:5). According to the saleswomen most fish is caught by dragnet, only tuna is caught by hook and line and gill net (40:6; 40:7; 40:8). Table 10 presents a selection of fishery products and their consumer prices.

Contrary to the development of new markets, aquaculturists claim that some products, particularly green mussels and grouper, have no or only poor developed markets (30:22; 19:26; 25:21). Developing new markets and searching for new customers or perhaps appointing someone from the village to act as an intermediary of their own choice seems impractical to consulted aquaculturists, because first of all they depend on intermediaries who borrow money to them, second of all they would not have the time to market their products, and third of all they would never trust anyone in money matters (30:24; 35:14). These findings reflect the high transaction costs associated with the marketing of fishery products, particular the limited access to market and price information and the domination of the market by few intermediaries and fish wholesalers (Lem et al. 2004,91,98; 59:3).

Credit institutions in the fishery sector in Vietnam can be differentiated into formal and informal ones (Lem et al. 2004,135 ff.). Unfortunately the proceedings of credit provision could not be identified in detail for all relevant institutions. Important sources and institutions for credit used by coastal fishery communities in Nha Phu Lagoon are:

ú Formal:

• The Bank of Investment and Development in Vietnam

  Since 1990 Vietnam’s banking sector has undergone considerable transition from a state bank monopoly to a two-tier banking system. Today there are six state-owned commercial banks, 36 joint stock banks, four joint venture banks, 27 foreign banks (with more than 60 representative offices of foreign banks), and about 900 credit cooperatives termed People’s Credit Funds (PCF). (GTZ 2004)

  (BIDV) borrows 50 percent of a customer’s capital asset value for the maximum duration of 5 years and an interest rate of 10.2 percent per annum (67:1; 67:4). A land title is required to apply for credit (67:6). Bank customers include fishermen (67:7).

• Agribank borrows 80 percent of a customer’s capital asset value, if he/she has a land title, and up to 50 percent if not (68:1). Yet without a land title one must have lived in Khanh Hoa for a long time, have a good business idea, a business plan and low risk (68:4). Without any assets it is possible to get a credit up to 20 million VND for a maximum of 5 years and an interest rate of 13.2 percent per annum, provided that my business plan is excellent (68:3). Two dragnet fishermen received loans between 50 and 150 million VND (66:9).

• Foreign Trade Bank (66:9)

• The Women’s Union is largely involved in micro-finance disbursement of several Banks, particularly to encourage fishery households to engage in agriculture or trading (58:8; 61:10). Specialties are the Women Credit Union in each village that hand out small credits to households (58:8).

• The Farmer’s Union can borrow money easily from the Agribank but only up to 10 million VND (68:5). Just like the Women’s Union, the Farmer’s Union is responsible for providing credits to households, especially those willing to change their occupation from fishing to agriculture or trading (61:10; 30:26).

ú Informal:

• Middlemen are the most important source of informal credits (30:23; 65:7; 75:12; 91:4; cf. Figure 41). However, these credits are rather small, e.g. 500 000 to 800 000 VND and constitute working capital for artisanal fishermen (75:12). Credits for investments are not provided. Rather middlemen carry out these investments themselves, e.g. constructing shrimp ponds and renting them out to others (72:7).

• Family members and friends are an important source of credit for all types of fishermen (92:5; 79:6). These informal credits are often used to make an investment (92:5).

Access to these credit institutions is a crucial factor in the development of the fishery sector in Nha Phu Lagoon and finds its expression in the coding category “Access to credit is constrained” (62:2; 26:20; 24:8; 27:9). Thereby, poor households seem more disadvantaged than richer households to obtain credit (41:15; 26:4; 61:3). Although the government is encouraging fishermen to invest in offshore fishing and aquaculture, the provision of credit remains a bottleneck (62:2; 86:3). In addition, the required investment costs of 50 to 200 million VND do not correspond with provided financing from banks or government organizations in the region of 3 to 10 million VND (31:17; 31:16; 28:5; 26:19; 68:5; 69:3). Furthermore, the payback period of many credits is only one year and repayment scheduled on a quarterly basis (31:16; 31:17; 70:16). Thus the availability of long-term credit remains one of the biggest problems (95:8).

However, one of the biggest constrain to acquire credit is the submission of a land title (68:4; 30:25; 67:6). The “red paper” (So Do) guarantees the legal ownership of the land the family home is built on (26:12). In order to obtain a So Do the family household must have been living on the land for some time and pay a certain fee (26:15). Further the bureaucratic procedure implies to contact the District People’s Committee and the Department of Land (67:6). However, the process of house and land registration lacks transparency and is susceptible to corruption, as the following example demonstrates. A few fishermen in Van Dang Village reported that last year the So Do cost 120 000 VND (81:11). This year the price had gone up to 5 million VND per paper (81:11). Apparently the reason was that many people had chosen to register their house at the same time (81:11). Yet, costs include measuring of the house and garden but also bribes for government officials (81:12). A new resident, who wanted to buy land for example, will need a So Do right away to prove his ownership (81:13). He will have to pay a sort of middleman to help him organize the So Do and this person will pay the “right” people money to get the paper quickly (81:13). The amount of money that will have to be spent depends on how rich the person is and lies between 2 to 5 million VND (81:13). Trying to get the legal document oneself would be much cheaper but the process might take one year or longer (81:13).

The lack of compiling adequate business plans is the second biggest constraint on the provision of credit (69:2; 68:4). Households willing to lend money are required to set up a business plan that describes the intended investment and its costs and benefits with particular emphasis on the payback period and the capital recovery rate (68:3; 68:4). Inadequate education and limited help to consult households in this matter prevents fishermen from obtaining formal credit (69:8). Along these lines is the statement of a member of the Fishermen’s Union in Van Dang: “Generally the knowledge of fishermen is really low and they just go fishing in Nha Phu Lagoon without thinking” (62:9).

The following organizational structures in fishing communities around Nha Phu Lagoon represent the findings from the stakeholder analysis conducted in connection with the Venn diagrams.

Figure 48. Organizational structures in the fishery sector of Nha Phu Lagoon.

Structures include government agencies, private business organizations, and self-formed community organizations. . The organizations chart gives an overview of the various structures in the fishery sector of Nha Phu Lagoon (Figure 48). A description of the identified stakeholders and a brief description can be found in the following list:

• Public:The Department of Fisheries is located in Nha Trang and responsible for the implication and dissemination of national fishery law in Khanh Hoa Province. The Agriculture and Fisheries Department of the District People’s Committee is the executive arm of the Provincial Department of Fisheries and controls the Municipal People’s Committees (45:3; 45:1).

The Fisheries Resources Protection Department is responsible for fishery management and the enforcement of fishery laws and regulations in Nha Phu Lagoon (70:7; FAO 2005). There is a small outpost of the Fisheries Resources Protection Department in Tan Than Village in the municipality of Ninh Ich (57:10). The department is also responsible for the restocking of 1 million Black Tiger Shrimp Larvae annually in Nha Phu Lagoon (57:2). This practice is widely questioned by fishermen who make jokes about the “fish feeding”, since the department releases the shrimp fry in deep water (57:3).

The enforcement of fishery laws, e.g. illegal fishing techniques is a major task of the Fisheries Resources Protection Department and many fishermen, particularly dragnet fishermen, have had encounters with personnel from the department and were fined (73:7; 71:8; 70:7; 70:1; 55:3).

The Fishery Promotion Centre also situated in Nha Trang is responsible for the dissemination of knowledge and the organization of training courses in the fishery sector in Khan Hoa Province (76:2; 94:1). Its focus lies in the development of aquaculture particularly shrimp and lobster culture (94:4). However, they also organize training courses for green mussel, blood cockle and oyster culture (94:3; 94:2). One objective is to enable fishermen pursuing illegal fishing techniques to change to another job (94:1). Training courses are conducted three times a year in the Municipal People’s Committees (94:1). Further, fishermen interested in culturing green mussels, for example, can ask their village leader to invite someone from the Fishery Promotion Centre (94:5).

The Marine Border Patrol 368 is situated in the urban district (Tanh Pho) of Nha Trang in Vinh Luong Municipality and reports to the headquarters in Nha Trang (39:2). The Marine Border Patrol 368 controls all the boats in Nha Phu Lagoon (39:1). They work together with the Fisheries Resources Conservation Department to catch violators using dragnets in Nha Phu Lagoon (58:1). In general, they try to convince fishermen to stop illegal fishing activities before imposing a fine (58:10; 58:6). However if fishermen are caught a second time, their fishing gear is confiscated and a fine imposed (58:11; 58:12). In the past there had been conflicts between the Marine Border Patrol and the illegal fishermen (58:4). Nowadays, these conflicts are decreasing, because they place emphasis on educating and informing fishermen about their illegal action (58:6).

The village authority includes the village leader (Truong Thon) and the village management (Ban Quan ly Thon). The Municipal People’s Committee elects the village leader from the Village People’s Committee (13:13). Besides the village leader there is also one police officer in each village (13:15). The village leader in Tam Ich has between two and five meetings at the Municipal People’s Committee in Ninh Loc per week (33:17).

The Farmer’s Union is the most powerful union in the villages (60:1). It exists on every administrational level, i.e. village, municipality, district, urban district and province (60:1). One of the main duties of the Farmer’s Union is to disburse micro-credits from the government to enable the diversification of household incomes from coastal communities through alternative incomes outside the fishery sector (61:10). Moreover, the Farmer’s Union can easily borrow money from the banks up to 10 million VND (68:5).

The Women’s Union is next to the Farmer’s Union the most powerful union in coastal communities (60:2). Just like the Farmer’s Union it is responsible for the disbursement of micro-credits from the government to encourage fishermen to change their job to agriculture or trading (61:10).

The Fishermen’s Union is the least powerful union in fishing communities and like a branch of the Farmer’s Union (60:3). Members of the Fishermen’s Union share experience and exchange ideas, for example how to feed lobster or how to invest in a bigger boat (60:3; 62:1). This organizational structure is eroding and nowadays several villages have no Fishermen’s Union anymore (95:1; 98:3).

The People’s Committee exists on every administrational level, i.e. village, municipality, district, and province (13:11; 13:13). The President of the Municipal People’s Committee is responsible for taxation, land sales and so forth (13:17). On the other hand, there is the political leader on municipality level, who is elected by the People’s Committee and approved by the District People’s Committee (13:16). He is responsible for the “protection of land and sea” and in charge of residence affairs, such as passports, registration, etc. (13:16). The People’s Committees are responsible to the next higher People’s Committee (45:1). In general, the People’s Council makes the law and the People’s Committee enforces it (45:2).

The Fishery Processing Company No. 17 is situated in the suburbs of Nha Trang and is the only commercially run processing company mentioned by fishermen and wholesalers (cf. 72:4; 74:1; 24:7). The company is mainly responsible for the development of the fishery sector through providing new market opportunities for fishermen to market their products (24:7; 25:29). Moreover, the company is a major employer in the area providing low qualified jobs for coastal community members (31:13).

Several banks in Nha Trang and Ninh Hoa provide credit to fishermen from coastal communities situated around Nha Phu Lagoon (31:17; 44:8; 66:9; 67:7). (see chapter 5.4.4 for further information)

• Private:Middlemen or intermediaries for nearly every commodity are present in every village (cf. 74:1; 80:7; 82:1; 86:2). Strong, interdependent business ties link fishermen with middlemen and different markets (30:23; 47:6; 59:3; 74:1; 75:3).

The Fisheries Resources Protection Group is a self-formed group founded in 2002 and unique to Ha Lien Village (16:5; 55:5; 97:2). The group was formed to fight electric fishing, since electric fishing had gone out of control after its introduction to the area a few years ago and is authorized by the local government authority (55:6; 16:5; 16:6).

The Offshore Fishing Boat Support Group is a self-formed group identified in Van Dang Village (95:1). Several of these groups are said to exist (98:4). However, none could be detected (98:4). Government authorities do not recognize the Offshore Fishing Boat Support Group (98:2).

There are great variations in how active these organizations and groups are and their occurrence varies from village to village (96:2; 97:2; 97:3; 97:4; 98:2; 98:4; 98:3). In a next step participants were asked to rank the identified stakeholders and informal groups according to their influence on the local coastal fishery sector in Nha Phu Lagoon. Thereby, bigger numbers express a stronger influence of that organization on the coastal fishery sector and vice versa. The results of the ranking are presented in the following Table 11.

Source: (93:3; 96:1; 97:1; 98:1)

Stakeholders

Village

English

Vietnamese

Tan Dao

Ha Lien

Van Dang

Department of Fisheries

So Thuy San

8

9

5

Fisheries Resources Protection Department

Chi cuc Bao ve nguon loi Thuy San

3

2

10

Fishery Promotion Centre

Trung tam khuyen ngu

9

-

10

Marine Border Patrol

Bien Phong

3

8

7

Village authority

Chimh quyen Thon

7

10

4

Women’s Union

Hoi phu nu

8

5

7

Farmer’s Union

Hoi nong dan

8

8

7

Fishermen’s Union

Chi hoi nghe ca

8

-

-

People’s Committee

UBND

5

10

10

Bank

Ngan Hanh

4

10

8

Middlemen

Nguoi trung gian

8

9

6

Fishery Processing Company

Cong ty che bien Thuy San

6

5

9

Fisheries Resources Protection Group

To bao ve nguon loi Thuy San

-

10

-

Offshore Fishing Boat Support Group

To ho tro danh bat xa bo

-

-

3

Table 11. Stakeholders and their relative influence (ranking 1 to 10) on the local coastal fishery sector determined by participants from three villages.

The ranking order varies considerably between the three villages. To identify the relationships between the organizations and the fishery households and to expose potential conflicts between stakeholders and possible key intervention points, participants were asked to conduct Venn diagrams. The arrangements of stakeholders and groups allow assertions about the decision-making structures depending on the positions of the circles, e.g. overlapping circles can indicate joint decisions and great distances between circles can be a sign for a lack of stakeholder participation in decision making (DFID 2000,3.5). The results of the three villages are as follows:

• Tan Dao lies next to highway No. 1 in a sheltered bay of Nha Phu Lagoon (cf. Figure 30). It borders salt marshes to the East and shrimp ponds to the West. There are only a few areas with mangroves, which remind the observer that they used to be plentiful (31:12). The sea area between the shoreline and the island of Hon Coc is famous for its green mussel culture and many villagers depend on it for a living (32:18; 91:5). Most people use small, un-motorized boats and trammel nets to fish for shrimps and crabs, but electric fishing is also prevalent in Tan Dao (31:2; 31:15; 35:11; 91:1; 73:6). Others, own shrimp ponds and culture shrimps, mud crabs and grouper (73:1; 31:22). Again others do agriculture (32:8; 31:18).

The most important stakeholder groups in Tan Dao according to their influence on the fishery sector are: the Fishery Promotion Centre, Middlemen, the Farmer’s, Women’s, and Fishermen’s Union, and the Department of Fisheries (96:1). Self-formed groups are absent and both the enforcement organizations, the Marine Border Patrol and the Fisheries Resources Protection Department, play virtually no role (96:1). The importance of the Fishery Promotion Centre lies in its success of a training course conducted in Tan Dao to induce 10 electric fishermen to culture green mussels, of which seven families changed to this new job (96:2). Middlemen are an important credit source and the Unions are involved in the disbursement of government loans in line with the poverty reduction program (91:4; 31:16).

The Venn diagram differentiates clearly between private and public sector organizations. Hereby, the closest relationship is between the middlemen and the economic development of family households. The second closest relationship is between the Women’s Union and the family household. The Marine Border Police and the Fisheries Resources Protection Department expectedly have no affiliation with the economic development of family households.

Figure 49. Venn diagram of Tan Dao Village representing stakeholder groups, their influence on the local coastal fishery and relationships between them.

• Ha Lien lies about four kilometers off highway No. 1 between several river mouths that enter Nha Phu Lagoon. Shrimp ponds cover the entire area interrupted only by a few scattered patches of mangroves (cf. Figure 30; 54:21). Hence, many livelihoods depend on shrimp culture (78:4). However from the previous 60 percent of the population farming shrimp, many are indebted and have returned to their original job, continuing shrimp culture on an extensive level (78:4). Many households go fishing with small, un-motorized boats for crabs, shrimp and fish (54:1; 54:3). Other household members collect shells during low tide (54:4; 55:2). Electric fishing has virtually disappeared completely, although many fishermen engaged in it in the past (54:19; 55:7). This circumstance is owed to the fact of a self-formed group called Fisheries Resources Protection Group that confiscates electric fishing equipment in the area (55:4; 55:5; 16:5; 16:7).

The village authority, the People’s Committee, banks, and the Fisheries Resources Protection Group have the strongest influence on the fishery sector (97:1). The Department of Fisheries and middlemen come close second, while the Marine Border Patrol and the Farmer’s Union rank third (97:1). The Fisheries Resources Protection Department has virtually no influence and has been replaced by the self-formed Fisheries Resources Protection Group. The Fishery Promotion Centre and the Fishermen’s Union are not present in Ha Lien.

The Venn diagram reveals that several stakeholder groups are interlinked with the economic development of family households in Ha Lien. Strong relationships (business ties) exist between middlemen and banks, followed by the People’s Committee, the village authority and the Fisheries Resources Protection Group. Remarkably, these organizations are characterized by maintaining stakeholder relations among themselves. Noticeable is also the relationship between the public and the private sector, i.e. the Marine Border Patrol and the self-formed community organization Fisheries Resources Protection Group.

Figure 50. Venn diagram of Ha Lien Village representing stakeholder groups, their influence on the local coastal fishery and relationships between them.

• Van Dang is one of three close-knit villages in Vinh Loung Municipality (cf. Figure 30). It lies right off highway No. 1 in close proximity to Nha Trang. The area is densely populated and covered with buildings. Many households live from agriculture in the nearby foothills, while others practice trading (38:2; 47:13). From the 250 households engaged in fishing about 50 use large boats with engines between 45 to 210 hp for offshore dragnet fishing (38:5; 38:11). The other 200 households use small boats, with engines between 12 to 20 hp and go fishing with gill nets in Nha Phu Lagoon (38:6; 38:11; 71:1). Other sources of information classify further and affirm that from 200 boats 100 use standard nets and the others go dragnet fishing in the lagoon (62:5; 95:4). Five households culture shrimp and a majority of the shrimp hatcheries in the area, about 30 to 40, belong to villagers in Van Dang (38:7; 38:8). An undetermined number of households catch lobster fry (47:15).

The Fisheries Resources Protection Department, the People’s Committee, and the Fishery Promotion Centre are said to have the strongest influence on the fishery sector (98:1). The fishery processing company is seen to be second in importance by villagers from Van Dang closely followed by banks. Unique to Van Dang but with little influence on the fishery sector is the Offshore Fishing Boat Support Group. And just like in Ha Lien the Fishermen’s Union is absent.

The Venn diagram displays a complex network of connections between the stakeholder groups and the economic development of family households. The Farmer’s Union, the bank, the People’s Committee and the Women’s Union take up key positions. Striking is that the government body consisting of the Fisheries Resources Protection Department, the Department of Fisheries and the Marine Border Patrol is strictly separated from this network and has no relationships with other stakeholder groups.

Figure 51. Venn diagram of Van Dang Village representing stakeholder groups, their influence on the local coastal fishery and relationships between them.

The analysis of the Venn diagrams from the different villages visualizes the unique structures and relationships between the multiple stakeholders in the fishery sector. For example, in Van Dang the fishery households are characterized by strong business ties to several of the stakeholders illustrated by the overlapping circles (Figure 51). These interconnections are also represented in the many overlapping circles between the various stakeholders (Figure 51). In Tan Dao the only overlapping exists between the fishery households and the middlemen, who at the same time represents the connection between the private and the public sector (Figure 49). Yet, at the same time Tan Dao stands out with many interconnections between the stakeholders themselves (Figure 49). Ha Lien represents a totally different picture. Although the stakeholders all have a relative strong influence on the fishery sector, depicted in the large circles, they all remain relatively detached from each other, i.e. unincisive relationships illustrated by the few interconnections (Figure 50).

On the other hand there are some similarities between the different Venn diagrams concerning stakeholder arrangements. Most striking is the connection between the fishery households, the middlemen and the fishery processing company, which is exactly the same in each of the three villages. Another distinct arrangement is the one including the Department of Fisheries, the Fisheries Resources Protection Department and the Marine Border Patrol, although only present in Tan Dao and Van Dang. In Ha Lien, the self-formed Fisheries Resources Protection Group cooperates with the Marine Border Patrol and extends the arrangement of the fisheries management institutions, while the Department of Fisheries and the Fisheries Resources Protection Department allegorize a structure of its own (Figure 50). And last but not least, the People’s Committee together with the bank, the Women’s and the Fishermen’s Union represents an arrangement that exemplifies the provision of credits to the fishery households. This arrangement is most distinct in Van Dang and least developed in Ha Lien.

The following sociological trends influence the local coastal fishery in Nha Phu Lagoon. The migration from agricultural areas to the coastal zone has consequences on resource exploitation, resource conflicts and on the management of coastal fishery resources. Some in-migration comes from Phu Yen Province in the North (44:16). On the other hand there is some out-migration to Ninh Loc Municipality and other areas (31:7). Newly settled outsiders are responsible for introducing new fishing techniques to Nha Phu Lagoon such as the deep-water trap (19:14; 19:5). This new trap has not only led to conflicts over blocking boat passageways but is said to have negative consequences on the fishery resources (33:6; 54:23; 12:2; 29:5; 33:4; 50:7; 54:23). As a result, notification No. 101 TS/BVNL issued on September 9^th 2003 by the Provincial Department of Fisheries in Nha Trang regulates and manages the use of the deep-water trap.

The lack of alternative income and insufficient education is forcing more and more young people to engage in fishing as a last resort. If in the past maybe 10 percent of the population went fishing, nowadays 50 percent go fishing (31:10; 31:11). Of these young and inexperienced fishermen many are unsuccessful (69:4). “In the future the resources will be destroyed further”,is the direct answer to this development expressed by a village leader and three fishermen, who see a sharp increase of people going fishing since 1975 (35:2; 35:3; 35:18). They attribute this to a lack of alternative jobs and population growth (35:20; 35:19; 35:18).

Several discussions with groups of different aged women revealed, that today more women are choosing to have only one or two children and exercise birth control using contraceptive coils and sterilization (31:6; 27:5). “More children make poor”, is the conviction uttered by eight interviewed women in Van Dang, who each only have one or two children compared to the average five to seven children per family (42:8; 42:7; 42:1; 25:26; 27:5; 31:5).

Several ecological trends were identified in the coastal fishery sector. Ten years ago Nha Phu Lagoon was rich in fishery resources like shrimp and fish (41:3). Porpoises were abundant and one could see many crabs and fish swimming in the water of the lagoon (41:5; 67:2; 3:13). At that time the fishermen used small rowing boats in the municipality of Vinh Luong (67:2). Since then, the introduction of new fishing techniques and the increasing fishing pressure have led to a decline of coastal fishery resources (14:2; 23:7; 27:6; 30:10; 41:4; 54:11; 91:1). The vice village leader of Ha Lien expresses this development: “10 years ago there were 100 percent resources, today there are two percent left” (16:1). Several examples mark the different stages in the decline of coastal fishery resources.

The rise and fall of the blood cockle is one of them. According to the village leader from Tan Thuy 500 fishermen were fishing for blood cockle in 2001 (14:9). Harvesting was easy but after two years stocks had disappeared completely (14:9).

Another example is the availability of grouper seed from natural collection. Seven years ago a woman culturing grouper could buy 70 juvenile grouper per day; now she only manages to buy two or three grouper seed a day (75:6; 75:7).

Despite negative ecological effects there are also positive ones. In 1997 green mussels were completely wiped out in Nha Phu Lagoon and were reestablished by the Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 3 in Nha Trang (52:1). Since then green mussel cultivation established itself in the lagoon. Several positive ecological externalities can be attributed to green mussel cultivation:

• The pillars used to culture green mussels serve as hiding place for shrimp and fish (32:7; 3:5). Fishermen catch shrimp and fish only around the pillars but nowhere else (32:9; 3:5).

• The structures used to culture green mussels serve as barrier against dragnets (32:10; 3:5).

• Fishermen in Tan Dao attribute good results in shrimp farming to the good water quality from green mussels filtering activity (32:4).

Shrimp culture is responsible for the deforestation of large areas in Nha Phu Lagoon’s tidal zone (3:8; 20:8). Yet this trend cannot be further perpetuated, because there is virtually no mangrove left (33:11; 35:6). However, the destruction of mangroves has led to an increased sedimentation and several water areas around Tam Ich that have been deeper in the past, i.e. 2.5 meters, are only 1.5 meters deep today (3:9; 32:5). In front of Tan Dao this phenomenon is even more distinct. The water that used to be more than two meters deep now only measures 70 centimeters (35:4). Citizens attribute this to inland deforestation and therefore more erosion and the destruction of mangroves that hold the sediments back (35:5).

Another trend with negative impacts on coastal resources is the increasing environmental pollution exemplified by the code: “Environmental pollution as reason for the decline of coastal fishery resources”. Pollution stems from aquaculture, agriculture, urban and rural settlements, and companies. In aquaculture polluters are shrimp ponds and hatcheries using large amounts of chemicals, medicine and feed (35:7; 22:5; 25:22; 18:15; 78:16). In agriculture polluting surface run-off from arable land containing nutrients and pesticides contaminates coastal waters (66:3; 66:2). Urban sewage originates in Ninh Hoa and further inland and enters Nha Phu Lagoon through the Cai River (92:6). Peri-urban and rural settlements contribute to domestic sewage discharge into Nha Phu Lagoon. In addition, rural waste from coastal communities litters the water body and the shoreline (35:8). It results from the local practice of waste disposal by dumping it on the beach, a practice I frequently observed during my field studies. Industrial wastewater originates from several companies including fish and sugar cane processing (25:22; 42:9; 92:6; 21:9).

Last but not least are some trends in coastal fisheries with an ecological implication. The introduction of new and more efficient fishing techniques and the increasing fishing effort leads to indiscriminate fishing regarding catch composition and size (33:4; 33:8; 14:2; 14:20; 19:9; 25:20; 29:5; 50:7; 58:17; 58:20; 64:7). Moreover, the development of mud crab and grouper culture supplied by natural seed collection is increasing the pressure on natural resources, so that today every size crab is caught (16:10; 86:1).

In accordance to Vietnam’s rapid economic growth and the increasing economic activity in fisheries and aquaculture several economic trends were identified in Nha Phu Lagoon. Even though the coastal communities still are considered poor according to international standards, the abundant resources of Nha Phu Lagoon have led to economic wealth in some of the municipalities surrounding the lagoon (41:7). “Dam Nha Phu made me rich” a fishermen states, explaining his economic development and that within 10 years he has changed from owning a small boat to three big offshore fishing vessels (41:8; 41:7; 41:1). Further emphasis comes from a fisherman in Luong Son, who over the last 20 years has made so much money from fishing that he has been able to buy a bigger boat every five years (66:6). Together with his son they now own four trawlers worth 200 million VND (12 600 USD) each (66:6).

Economic development is not limited to offshore fishermen but is also expressed by artisanal fishers and the code: “Local perception of livelihoods/Lives have improved”. A fisherman in Ha Lien, for example, perceives that life is getting better, i.e. income raises and kids go to school (54:9). In Ngoc Diem 150 of the 500 households are considered rich (25:25). Yet, all too often monetary rewards benefit only a small share of the population from coastal communities and are associated with high-input productions systems such as shrimp and lobster culture (79:5; 19:16; 21:5). The associated high entry costs into aquaculture prevent alternative income development (79:8; 79:7). In Cat Loi lobster culture (rearing) has improved lives a lot and many people have jobs related to the lobster industry (48:5; 48:6). However, villagers are experiencing that social structures are eroding and that with increasing income “people are no longer working together” and “(…) hate each other for high income and possessions” (48:8; 48:9; 48:10). Only people culturing lobster close to one another might care and look after each other (48:11).

In Vietnam three common destructive fishing techniques are banned: (i) explosive fishing, (ii) cyanide fishing, and (iii) electric fishing (14:14). In addition, trawling is prohibited in coastal waters less than 25 meters in depth and in every lagoon nationwide (18:23; 65:23; 13:4). In general the municipal leader is responsible for the enforcement of fishing laws (57:8). The next responsible person is the leader of the District People’s Committee. If the fine for illegal fishing activities exceeds 500 000 VND, the municipal leader has to report to the district level and is not responsible anymore (57:9). For comparison the national fishery law No. 70/2003/ND-CP stipulates that:

• 100 000 to 300 000 VND fine shall be issued for use of net with the mesh smaller than regulations (Section B, Article 10.2 b)

• 2 to 4 million VND fine shall be levied for building underwater constructions that alter the places of habitats, without license (Section A, Article 8.2)

• 1 to 3 million VND fine shall be levied for use of electric equipment (Section B, Article 10.5 b)

• 2 to 4 million VND fine shall be levied for use of poisonous chemicals to exploit fisheries (Section B, Article 10.6)

• Supplementary punishment includes the confiscation of all gear, catch and the destruction of equipment (Section B, Article 10.8)

Table 13 summarizes the negative effects that originate from pursued livelihood strategies. Some of these livelihood strategies are illegal in the first place such as trawling, electric fishing and cyanide fishing. Others are carried out violating the law, such as forcing broodstock to spawn early and producing weak shrimp fry that causes economic losses for shrimp farmers. Or fishing for lobster fry with lift nets and light that is beyond the permitted wattage and that damages the lobster fry causing low survival rates and economic losses for the lobster culturists. Opposed to the violations Table 13 illustrates the existing government decrees and directives that are described in more detail in chapter 5.3.3. More detailed information concerning the negative effects of the pursued livelihood strategies can be found on the following pages.

Livelihood strategy

Violation

Negative effects

Decree/directive

Deep-water trap

Too small mesh size

§ Indiscriminate in size

§ Destroys larvae & eggs from fish and invertebrates

§ Blocking boat passage ways

No. 101 TS/BVNL

Trawling

Prohibited in Nha Phu Lagoon

§ Unselective fishing

§ Indiscriminate in size

§ Destroys seabed & Seagrass

§ Destruction of coral

§ Causes conflicts

No. 26 CT/UB

Electric fishing

Prohibited in Vietnam

§ Indiscriminate in size

§ Destroys larvae & eggs from fish and invertebrates

§ Erodes social structures

§ Encourages outsiders to fish

No. 01/1998/cT-TTg

Cyanide fishing

Prohibited in Vietnam

§ Destroys coral reefs organisms

No. 01/1998/cT-TTg

Shrimp farming

Pollution

§ Infecting neighboring ponds

§ Economic losses

§ Polluting coastal environment (dead fish & crabs, skin infections)

No. 70/2003/ND-CP

Shrimp hatchery

Forcing broodstock to spawn ⇒ weak fry

§ Economic losses

No. 70/2003/ND-CP

Lobster culture

Too strong light ⇒ weak fry

§ Economic losses

§ Eroding social structures

§ Blocking boat passage ways

No. 70/2003/ND-CP

Table 13. Livelihood strategies violating government decrees/directives and their associated negative effects on the coastal environment and its inhabitants.

The incentive to engage in deep-water trap net fishing lies in the higher income compared to the usual occupation, i.e. traditional crab net fishing with baited traps (32:22; 52:6; 52:7; 52:4).

Respondents reported that the fine mesh net of the traps not only catches juvenile fish and shrimp indiscriminate of their size and unselective but also and to a bigger effect destroys fish and crab larvae and eggs that are washed against the netting and construction by waves (25:20; 30:17; 50:15; 50:7; 29:5; 33:4; 12:2). According to fishermen from Tam Ich deep-water trap fishing, electric fishing and trawling “(…) make the fishery resources rare” (50:12). Moreover, in contrast to other illegal fishing methods the deep-water trap catches at all times (50:11). Furthermore, because some traps are blocking ship passageways, there have been incidents of traps being destroyed by angry fishermen from Tam Ich (33:6).

In the beginning of this study, the municipalities of Ninh Loc and Ninh Ha were watching and monitoring the new development of deep-water trap fishing and then passed notification No. 101 TS/BVNL issued September 9^th 2003, that informed about the illegal net size and that offenses will lead to the removal of traps (19:10; 19:12; 19:13). However, only since December is it illegal and the village leader in Tan Thuy has ordered traps to be dismantled although not rigorously (89:3; 89:4).

Trawling or dragnet fishing (Gia cao) is one of the biggest problems in Nha Phu Lagoon today (95:4). Of the 200 small, motorized boats in Van Dang 100 use gill nets; the other 100 boats go dragnet fishing in Nha Phu Lagoon (62:4; 62:5; 95:4). “Many small boats (18 to 20 hp engine) go fishing with dragnet inside the lagoon” (81:5). The fishermen that go dragnet fishing argue that gill net fishing is more strenuous and less economic; 10 days gill net fishing equal 1 day dragnet fishing (62:6). “They can’t go outside the lagoon and mainly participate in dragnet fishing, because it makes a lot of money” (81:6). On the other side the gill net fishermen argue, that they do not have to worry about being caught by the Marine Border Patrol or the Fisheries Resources Protection Department (62:7). They prefer going fishing anywhere they choose with a “good feeling” (71:8).

In the past many of the small dragnet fishermen were working on big offshore trawlers and then started their own business copying their employees (95:6). Often neglected but of great importance in this context is the fact that a single person can carry out dragnet fishing in contrast to gill net fishing, where two persons are required to set the nets and one person to steer the boat (95:9).

A dragnet for a small boat only costs about 4 to 5 million VND (95:7). For gill net fishing one needs about 22 to 23 gill nets, each costing about 600 000 VND, so the total investment cost is about 14 million VND plus an additional 1,5 million VND per year for net repairs (95:7). In addition, the availability of long-term credit remains a big problem (95:8). The following example demonstrates this. A gill net fishermen in Van Dang can set aside about 3 500 VND daily and save about 110 000 VND a month (95:8). That means the fishermen could repay a loan with 1.4 million VND a year or referring to the initial investment costs above, he would require a retention period of 10 years (95:8). Thus the low entry costs into illegal fishing and the lack of long-term credit and bank loans in general remain one of the biggest reasons for illegal dragnet fishing in Nha Phu Lagoon today (95:5). Further emphasis comes from fishermen in Tan Thanh who pinpoint poverty and inadequate credit schemes to ineffective legislation (18:22). Poverty or the dependence of certain low-income households on a single livelihood strategy, namely trawling, seems quite distinct and is mentioned likewise from involved and uninvolved persons (6:7; 35:22; 36:6; 41:9).

According to the Marine Border Patrol (Bien Phong 368) stationed in Nha Phu Lagoon negative effects of trawling are:

• Due to the small net size used, everything is caught (58:17; Figure 64, Annex).

• Dredging destroys the seabed and Seagrass (58:18). Fishermen in Vo Tanh reported that five years ago pearl oyster culture disappeared, because of turbid water from trawlers stirring up the seafloor (6:4; 79:9). Furthermore, the assertion: “The maintenance costs are quite high, because the dragnet often gets damaged on the coral” is an indication that coral is destroyed as well (70:13).

• 75 percent of the catch is small fish and used as animal feed (trash fish), only 25 percent are of big size (58:19; Figure 64, Annex).

• Trawling has a strong effect on the fishery in Nha Phu Lagoon because of its high extraction level (58:20).

Strikingly the Marine Border Patrol Officer finishes his list with the statement (58:22):

“If illegal fishing can be controlled, it will increase the fishery in Dam Nha Phu again”.

However, the enforcement is difficult and there have been occasions where dragnet fishermen got help from other big trawlers and tried to sink the vessel of the Marine Border Patrol exemplifying the powerlessness of the authorities (25:15). But the conflicts are not limited to the authorities and dragnet fishermen. Fishermen in the back of Nha Phu Lagoon operating mainly small, un-motorized boats with gill nets have strong antipathy against fishermen from the more developed villages towards the front of the lagoon operating mainly medium, motorized boats with dragnets (6:2; 8:1; 15:7; 25:14; 62:8; 65:10). In Ngoc Diem dragnet fishermen have intimidated gill net fishermen, on the other hand, dragnet fishermen from Vo Tanh do not dare to go trawling in the back of the lagoon anymore (25:14; 65:5; 3:12). Today they usually only fish until the Island of Hon Thi (3:12). Between 1994 and 1997 the tension rose and in 1996 the situation escalated and two people were killed, a small boy and his father, who was drowned “but since then everybody lives in peace” (14:21; 13:5; 13:19). This is not quite right, since fishermen from Tan Te complain about excessive dragnet use in the past (15:7). In 1998 this led the Department of Fisheries to sink old tires filled with concrete in front of Tan Dao to stop trawling (32:11; 15:7). Yet the attempt failed and fishermen remember this action as a “waste of money” (32:11; 32:12; 15:7). Today the conflict persists and fishermen from Tan Thuy see no change (4:1; 4:2).

The same fishermen point out, that if the Fisheries Resources Protection Department would impose the proper fines, they could not make any money in the future, an assertion that highlights the incidence of corruption (4:6; 15:9; 76:4). From the Marine Border Patrol’s point of view the action they take depends on how poor the dragnet fishermen are, i.e. what financial resources they have (58:13; 58:25). According to the Marine Border Patrol and the Fisheries Resources Protection Department the usual fine imposed is between 2 and 5 million VND (44:9; 57:6). However fishermen caught the second time will be punished in general the Marine Border Patrol talks with dragnet fishermen and informs them of their illegal action (58:10; 58:11). In the year 2003 the Marine Border Patrol reported four cases where dragnet fishermen were caught twice and fined; “5-8 nets” were confiscated (58:12). In a group discussion on the beach at Vo Thanh I met a man who was just caught by the Fisheries Resources Protection Department and was fined 1 million VND (65:6). It is the second time in a row for him that he is fined (65:6). A dragnet fisherman in Luong Son has been fined three times by the Fisheries Resources Protection Department and has paid 4 million VND each time (70:1). This man likes to fish in the buffer zone between the two capes and has also been abused by officials (70:7). The maximum fine of 20 million VND would never be imposed, because it will “drive people against the wall” (58:24). This concept is also shared by the president of the People’s Committee in Vinh Luong Municipality who specifies, that many lives are so poor, they cannot borrow money from the bank, so “we can’t enforce strictly, because it will drive poor people against the wall” (61:13; 61:17).

Next to corruption there are other reasons why enforcement is not working. One is the use of radio between dragnet fishermen who contact each other when police boats appear (25:12; 4:5). Although this action is obvious, the authorities seem unaware of it. “Every boat has radio onboard”, the fishermen agree and endorse that the Fisheries Resources Protection Department comes about every 10 days from Nha Trang to control fishing activities between 11 p.m. and 3 a.m. (65:9; 65:8).

Electric fishing (Xiet dien) is next to trawling an illegal fishing method that has great impact on the fishery resources and the social structures in coastal communities around Nha Phu Lagoon (4:8; 20:23; 30:10; 33:8; 53:11; 53:12; 55:8; 56:6; 83:1). Electric fishing was introduced to Nha Phu Lagoon about four to seven years ago (56:18; 50:6; 20:17; 73:12). For several reasons given below this illegal fishing practice was soon widely adopted by small-scale fishermen, although they were violating Article 6 of Resolution No. 17/2003/QH11 of the National Fisheries Law. Lack of alternative jobs and lack of specific fishing knowledge are one reason why fishermen engage in electric fishing (73:11; 73:12). Poverty is another often mentioned reason (73:6). The acquisition of electric fishing equipment is also comparatively inexpensive (16:8). In other words the incentive to engage in electric fishing is the low initial investment cost and that no specific knowledge is needed compared to traditional fishing methods, where nets cost a substantial amount of money and require experienced fishermen to know where and when to go fishing (71:4; 73:11; 73:12). In addition electric fishing is less labor intensive and the income slightly higher than from traditional gill net fishing methods (56:2; 56:12; 79:2). Fishermen using traditional methods, for example, will go fishing for about 12 to 14 hours a day (77:1). A fisherman using electric fishing gear will take only 3 to 4 hours daily (56:12; 77,2). These reasons have led to not only residents engaging in electric fishing but also outsiders coming to Nha Phu Lagoon by motorbike hereby emphasizing the open-access

Of course this obsolete term fails to express, that these coastal resources (such as any other resources) are far from open-access as Béné (2003,960) states but require certain costs of entry to exploit.

Consequently electric fishing destroys social structures in the coastal fishing communities; fishermen using traditional fishing gear, like gill nets and crab traps versus fishermen using electric fishing gear (75:15; 78:3; 56:6; 55:8; 53:12; 11:3). According to many fishermen another great disadvantage of electric fishing is that it kills small fish, eggs and larvae (83:3; 56:11; 53:11; 33:8). Besides being indiscriminate in size, an interviewed electric fisherman admitted that small fish are often used as duck feed (56:4; 14:20). Resource maps unfortunately show that the electric fishing areas are congruent with the areas participants indicated as breeding grounds and nursery areas of marine invertebrates and fish (cf. 10:1; 10:2; 12:2).

As mentioned earlier electric fishing is still prevalent in Nha Phu Lagoon today. Alone in Tan Te about 40 fishermen go electric fishing (76:1). A training course held by the Fishery Department on the negative effects of electric fishing and with high attendance from the fishermen, led to a temporary stop of electric fishing for one and a half months but after that activities returned to their current levels (76:2). A training course offer in Tan Te from the Fishery Promotion Centre about blood cockle culture produced no interest and nobody registered (94:6). In Tan Dao the concept to enable fishermen pursuing illegal fishing activities to change to another job was successful (94:2). The Fishery Promotion Centre had trained 10 electric fishermen in green mussel culture and seven abandoned electric fishing and culture green mussels today (94:2; 96:2).

Although the fine for electric fishing is 2 million VND and all equipment is confiscated, few fishermen are discouraged (14:15). But electric fishermen are becoming nervous at present, because apparently enforcement is getting stronger and in addition to the electric fishing equipment (400 000 VND) boats (1 million VND) are also confiscated (53:14). Bigger than the risk of getting caught is the fact that electric fishermen are deprecated by their social environment (53:12; 53:15; 56:6; 75:16; 11:3; 55:8; 78:3). For this reason an interviewed fisherman in Tan Thuy chooses to go fishing at night (56:6). According to the same man the leader of the People’s Committee does a poor job (56:15). Although they meet once a year to talk about the electric fishing problem, no action is taken (56:17). Additionally there is a program that provides fishermen who stop electric fishing with credit but nobody has made use of it (56:16).

Lax enforcement seems to be ascribed to organizational and responsibility issues. For example, a village leader reports to the Department of Fisheries that electric fishing is going on (76:3). The department instructs the Marine Border Patrol to act (76:3). As consequence the activities stop but four to five days later reoccur (76:3). Furthermore, the Marine Border Patrol collects money from the violators and puts it in their own pockets while reporting back, that everything was quiet today and no activities could be observed (76:4). For this reason a middleman argues, that “electric fishing cannot be controlled but only the minds of the people changed through telling them how bad it is” (75:14).

Cyanide (Chat doc) is still used today to catch live grouper (80:2). A diver in Loung Son freely admits that he uses cyanide to catch fish (80:2). Interestingly the fisherman also knows about the devastating effects of cyanide, e.g. that areas where cyanide has been used are not occupied by fish anymore, and refers to it as one reason for declining catches (80:1). He uses cyanide in particular to catch live grouper during the season from May to July, when adult animals migrate from the open sea to the inshore reefs (80:6). At this time middleman demand large quantities of live grouper and pay high prices (80:6). The same middlemen also supply the fishermen with cyanide during this time (80:7). Although the sale of cyanide is illegal in Vietnam and it has become difficult to buy today, the middlemen supply themselves from one province in the North (80:3; 80:7).

Other destructive fishing practices such as the use of dynamite (Min) seem to be absent, although it is still a common fishing technique in the coastal waters of Kanh Hoa Province and in particular in the nearby Hon Mun Marine Protected Area around Hon Tre Island (Nguyen and Adrien 2002,62). Strangely enough, a spontaneous statement of a woman in Vo Tanh: “I hate people that use dynamite or cyanide for fishing” points out that dynamite fishing is perhaps still an issue in Nha Phu Lagoon (44:13).

The last chapter highlights the role illegal fishing plays in the livelihoods of the coastal communities and its negative impact on the coastal fishery resources. In general the public agenda was dominated by discussions about illegal fishing methods. Summarizing and using the words of the village leader from Tam Ich it can be said, “illegal fishing only benefits one family but destroys the living of 10 others” (33:10).

As mentioned earlier there are 47 shrimp hatcheries along the coast of Nha Phu Lagoon, all located between Cat Loi and Loung Son (24:9). They supply the demand of the growing shrimp aquaculture in Khanh Hoa Province and other provinces. A shrimp hatchery visit revealed, that annual turnover amounts up to 500 million VND. However large quantities of disinfectants, drugs, and dry algae as well as broodstock account for a large share of the input costs. Consequently the shrimp hatcheries produce large amounts of wastewater, which is discharged untreated. Several conversations in Nha Trang about shrimp hatcheries contained assertions about how effluence water contaminates the surrounding sea and that residents stopped going swimming in the areas where shrimp hatcheries discharge wastewater. In turn, this and the high land prices in Nha Trang were the main reasons, why shrimp hatcheries had relocated and developed in Nha Phu Lagoon.

Taxation

Shrimp pond owners with less than two hectares of pond surface pay no taxes. Any additional hectare costs 300 000 VND tax per year (Classification 1).

A government official owning five ponds, each pond one hectare big, pays no tax. On the other hand he rents out some of his ponds. However, he reports that in Nha Phu Lagoon there is no classification 1, only classification 2, 3 and 4, i.e. no shrimp farmer pays taxes. (33:18)

Interestingly there are shrimp pond owners with up to 20 hectares (22:4).

The development of shrimp aquaculture in Nha Phu Lagoon has been described earlier in this work. Incentives to engage in shrimp aquaculture are the high profit margins within reach, i.e. “the people only look for the profit before their eyes” (34:6). Yet the once lucrative business has turned to a losing undertaking. Since the year 2000 the incidence of disease in shrimp aquaculture has risen sharply and many people have been unsuccessful or lost everything they had (15:6, 20:9; 34:2). “Everybody is one time successful and then again unsuccessful” (interview with a shrimp farmer from Tam Ich, 87:2). In Ha Lien, for example, 60 percent of the population was farming shrimp at some time (78:4). Now they are all in debt with liabilities between 10 and 100 million VND per household (78:4). Many of those have returned to their original jobs, namely fishing and collecting shells, but keep on farming shrimp on a very extensive level (78:4). Renting out the ponds is no option, as there are no potential buyers that want to take the risk to lose money (78:6). Although they have been successful in 2003, the return is little, as they all invested little in the first place (78:6). In the area of Tam Ich, 80 to 90 percent of the shrimp farmers have failed in the last two years (34:2). And just like in Ha Lien most of the people owning shrimp ponds in Tam Ich have debts at the bank (87:3). Analogous in Tan Te the shrimp production is very low, since many disease problems have occurred in the last three years (20:9). Many shrimp farmers have failed a third time and are bankrupt now (20:9). Two men from Ha Lien summarize the crucial point with a Vietnamese proverb:

“If you sit on the back of the Tiger, you have to follow him” (78:19).

Thereby particular importance is ascribed to shrimp farmers that have made major investments, lost everything and now have liabilities at the bank that can only be amortized by continuing shrimp culture that promises the highest profits.

Shrimp farmers mention several reasons for the failure of shrimp culture. One is the weak and disease infected shrimp fry they purchase (78:12; 73:2). An interviewed shrimp farmer blames the hatcheries, which he believes force broodstock to spawn early (73:2). There is no doubt that hatcheries are responsible for poor shrimp fry quality and pond owners are better off, if they have close relatives or if a business connection is established whereby the shrimp fry supplier receives a present, when the harvest was successful (73:3; 73:4).

A second often mentioned reason is polluted water from neighboring ponds that causes the loss of entire shrimp harvests (78:12; 73:2). In this context pollution is used synonymously for water-borne disease (73:2). Since shrimp are prone to disease, the biggest threat comes through contaminated water especially from neighboring ponds that supply themselves from the same channels (73:2; 78:12). Unfortunately, the common practice to farm at different times and release the water from the ponds in case of an outbreak of disease, adds to this threat, because other shrimp farmers take this water to fill their ponds (55:14).

Environmental polluted water poses the next threat to successful shrimp aquaculture and is another often mentioned reason. Several respondents claim factories such as the Hyundai shipbuilding factory in Van Ninh, the seafood-processing factory “Viet Thang” in Ninh Ich and urban pollution from Nha Trang responsible (42:9; 25:22; 92:6; 22:5). Others deem shrimp pond effluence responsible for polluted water and consider it the main reason for unsuccessful culturing (22:5; 20:13; 25:22).

The following Figure 52 displays the previously mentioned reasons for the failure of shrimp culture and exemplifies the negative effects shrimp farming has on the coastal environment.

Figure 52. Reasons for the failure of shrimp culture and impacts on the coastal environment.

Nevertheless, directives exist that govern epidemics, waste water treatment of hatcheries and ponds, quality of shrimp fry, and veterinary and sanitary standards like the government decree No. 70/2003/ND-CP that stipulates:

• 0.5 to 1.5 million VND shall be applied, if hatcheries water treatment system does not comply with environmental protection requirements (Article 12.1 a)

• d), if shrimp fry does not meet the proclaimed quality

• 2 to 4 million VND shall be applied, if drugs, chemicals, dead and waste of infectious fish/shrimp is discharged into natural water and fish/shrimp farming waters (Article 14.2 c)

During this study no practical experience concerning current laws and regulations was made but many individual attempts that attend the highlighted issues in shrimp aquaculture were found. One solution is that everybody starts shrimp farming at the same time, and they announce to each other when they release contaminated water so that in case of a disease outbreak nobody else is using discharged water to fill his or her pond (55:15; 78:13). In Ha Lien the village leader reports, that there have been meetings about this issue and agreements were made but the pond owners decided differently when to start farming (55:16). In response two other men from Ha Lien answer, that if one shrimp farmer is unsuccessful and loses his shrimp, he does not want to see anyone else be successful (78:14).

A side effect of the chemicals and drugs used in shrimp aquaculture is that it kills fish and crabs after pond water is exchanged and the polluted water is discharged into the sea (35:7; 66:2). The practice of water exchange is carried out about two to four hours after shrimp farmers apply drugs (35:25). Fishermen in Tan Dao report that Mullets have skin infections and attribute them to the chemicals used in the shrimp ponds, namely Saponin, Chlorine and Focmon (35:23; 35:25). “From about 10 fish caught near the ponds, eight have skin problems” and cannot be sold at the market anymore (35:24; 35:26). Others report: “When shrimp ponds are prepared, the next day nothing can be caught close to them” (85:1). A group of fishermen in Tan Thanh emphasizes, that they see major future threats from untreated shrimp pond effluence discharged into the lagoon and specify that some chemicals used are toxic to fish (18:15). And a middleman in Ngoc Diem culturing grouper reports that shrimp pond effluence had killed all her fish (75:8).

These are not the only side effects of shrimp aquaculture. Of high significance is the fact, that before shrimp ponds were built, the land was common property but the government encouraged aquaculture and pond building and participants received legal land titles (20:11). Moreover, in the area of Tan Te some of the land was used for agriculture but salinization from neighboring ponds degraded the soil and the land was converted to shrimp ponds (21:4).

Within the last 10 years lobster culture developed in Nha Phu Lagoon with the effect that livelihoods improved a lot (48:5; 48:7). However, lobster culture is restricted to two favorable areas, each counting about 100 lobster farmers (48:1; 70:10). Cat Loi is the village foremost in lobster cage culture and many residents have jobs related to lobster culture (48:6).

The reasons why former fishermen engage in lobster culture are the expected profits and the fact that the government is encouraging aquaculture particularly illegal dragnet fishermen to change their jobs (58:7; 61:6; 65:25; 79:9).

The most striking consequence of lobster culture is its consumption of water surface, i.e. the lobster cage structures cover large areas and thus block boat passageways (26:2). At present, there is only limited space left suitable for lobster culture (26:2). In order to avoid further conflicts concerning the use of the water surface the Provincial People’s Committee of Khanh Hoa has decided to divide the water surface of the surrounding waters in Cat Loi into sectors and hand out land titles to persons pursuing lobster culture (24:11). A discussion with people from Cat Loi about the coming law was charged with emotions (26:22). One person admitted that this is an appropriate way to go, others got very angry, because they fear that water space will be taken away from them (26:1). This suggests that the latter mentioned lobster culturists must occupy large areas today (26:1). The allocation of rights is ambiguous, i.e. it is not clear if the water surface will be divided equally among the residents from Cat Loi, as one angry man fears who is upset, that poor people without any money for investments will live from renting out their lots (26:3). On inquiry, he admits that poor people have little access to credit, land or water space (26:4). This example highlights the already discussed consequence of antisocial greed associated with rising incomes and lobster culture (cf. 48:8; 48:9; 48:10; 48:11).

Although lobster culturists also catch lobster fry with drilled coral blocks to supply themselves, their catch does not reach their requirements and hence they make additional purchases of lobster fry (26:16). The mortality of lobster seed is relatively high, e.g. one farmer reported that six from 10 lobsters die (59:2). As the main reason for the low quality of lobster seed lobster fry fishermen and lobster farmers identify light fishing, which is said to cause irreparable eye damage and weaken juvenile lobsters (82:6; 26:17; 51:4). Unfortunately the middlemen mix their healthy lobsters from drilled coral block fishing with weak ones caught by strong light lift net fishing so the customer has no choice (47:7; 59:2). In addition lobster farmers cannot purchase directly from lobster fry fishermen, because the latter borrow money from the middlemen with the obligation to sell their catch to them (82:7). The second reason identified affecting the vigor of the lobster fry is long transports applicable for lobster seed from different provinces (82:6).

A discussion among lobster culturists from Cat Loi dealt with the idea of introducing a brand that trades quality lobster fry from Cat Loi as a counterbalance to the three middlemen (59:4; 59:3). The underlying assumption was to guarantee, that lobster fry are only caught by drilled corals and are not mixed with fry caught by light fishing to assure healthy lobster seed and being able to sell them for a higher price (59:4). However, the respondents arrived at the conclusion that this cannot be realized, because the Vietnamese are very deceitful, an allusion that it is inherit in the Asian culture not to trust each other (59:4).

In an attempt to protect natural resources in Nha Phu Lagoon the example of Ha Lien Village demonstrates the formation of a community self-help organization to initiate natural resources management (97:2). A short historical retrospect recapitulates some of the effects of illegal fishing that lead to the establishment of the Fishery Resources Protection Group (To bao ve).

Soon after electric fishing was introduced to the village of Ha Lien seven years ago, 50 percent of the fishermen engaged in this new technique (55:6; 55:7). Strong social tension between traditional versus electric fishermen led to conflicts and fights within the community (55:8; 11:3; 78:3). This went so far, that the village leader could not move freely in his village anymore, because of the many arguments he would get into (55:8). Although no internal leadership was detectable and no external efforts reported, there was a shared understanding of the situation, as fishery resources declined and conflicts grew (Strehlow and Peters 2004,4; cf. 55:10). In 2002 collective action led the villagers to organize a village meeting where they agreed unanimously to ban electric fishing (16:5; 55:10). A self-help organization was formed, the Fishery Resources Protection Group (97:2). Later this group even got the authorization from the local government authorities (16:6; 54:19). Today 20 group members patrol and confiscate electric fishing equipment in the area (16:7; 55:4).

The outcome is remarkable. The number of electric fishermen in the area has declined significantly (54:19; 78:3). In the village of Ha Lien only two families using electric fishing equipment remain (11:5; 78:3). In addition, outsiders from other villages are punished and their equipment confiscated as well (16:7; 54:19; 55:4). Of course there have been fights and arguments, when electric fishing equipment is confiscated but the Fishery Resources Protection Group has staid persistent (55:5). In Ha Lien Village strong communal ties have formed and fish catches have stabilized (55:9). Last but not least awareness among fishermen has developed which is expressed in (i) individual mangrove reforestation projects and (ii) discussions among fishermen about a ‘good code of practice in fishing’, e.g. adoption of minimum mesh sizes in order not to catch undersized fish (55:11; 16:9; 54:18; 54:16). A fisherman from Ha Lien expresses the former: “Replanting would be very important to restore the environment for many generations later” (54:15). Another fisherman from Ha Lien expresses the latter: “The net size also needs to be right, so it catches the fish with the right size. Now they use any technique to catch fish of any size.” (55:13).