1.  General introduction

• • 1. Missing the knowledge of paternity is missing half of the knowledge on kinship

  • 2. The knowledge of paternity allows to investigate new questions

  • 3. Factors influencing kinship within a group

  • 4. Chapter overview

2.  General methods

• • 1. The Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)

  • 2. The study population of Cayo Santiago

  • 3. The study group

  • 4. Focal females (N=34)

  • 5. Behavioural data taking

  • 6. Behavioural definition

  • 7. Behavioural data analyses

  • 8. Statistical Tests

  • 9. Paternity analyses

3.  Male reproductive skew, females perspective and paternal birth cohorts

• Introduction

  • 1. Males perspective

  • 2.  Females perspective

  • 3. Infant perspective

• Results

  • 1. Males reproductive skew

  • 2. Females Perspective

  • 3. Paternal birth cohorts

• Discussion

• Summary

4.  Paternal kin discrimination and age proximity

• Introduction

  • 1. Mechanisms of kin discrimination

  • 2. Defining kin discrimination vs. kin recognition

  • 3.  Evidence of kin discrimination

  • 4. Hypothesis

  • 5. Aim of this chapter

• Results

  • 1. The effect of kinship and age proximity on affiliation and aggression

  • 2.  The effect of kinship and the exact age differences on affiliation and aggression

  • 3. The effect of kinship and age proximity on affiliation and aggression controlling for spatial proximity

  • 4. The correlation between affiliation and aggression

• Discussion

• Summary

5.  Relatedness threshold and the degree of relatedness

• Introduction

• Results

  • 1. Testing the effect of the degree of relatedness on affiliation and aggression

  • 2. Testing the relatedness threshold concept on affiliation and aggression

  • 3.  Testing the effect of different kin categories on affiliation and aggression controlling for degree of relatedness

  • 4. Testing the effect of kin lineage and degree of relatedness on affiliation and aggression

• Discussion

• Summary

6.  Coalition formation with the knowledge of paternal kinship

• Introduction

• Results

  • 1. Testing variables related to support

  • 2. Testing the effect of dyadic attributes on grooming and support

  • 3. Testing kin selection theory with respect to support

  • 4. Testing reciprocal altruism with respect to support

  • 5. Testing co-operation with respect to support

• Discussion

• Summary

7.  Conclusions

• • 1. Summary of findings

  • 2.  Importance of findings

  • 3.  Confounding variables for maternal and paternal kinship

  • 4.  Future studies

Publications

Appendix 1: Study group

Appendix 2: Ethogram

Appendix 3: Paternity results

Table 2.2.1: Age categories among the group females (N=91)

Table 2.2.2: Microsatellites used for paternity analyses

Table 2.2.3: Master-mix for PCR amplification of the 14 microsatellites

Table 3.3.1: Male tenure and number of offspring sired

Table 3.3.2: Number of group paternities vs. extra-group paternities

Table 3.3.3: Male reproductive skew and variables which may effect male reproductive skew

Table 3.3.4: Top sires and number of offspring they produced

Table 3.3.5: The association between sirehood and rank class

Table 3.3.6: Number of maternal and paternal half-siblings vs. full-siblings

Table 3.3.7: Frequency of paternal sibship

Table 4.4.1: The effect of kinship and age proximity on affiliation and aggression

Table 4.4.2: Testing age proximity controlling for kinship

Table 4.4.3: Testing maternal vs. paternal half-siblings and non-kin controlling for age proximity

Table 4.4.4: Testing paternal half-siblings vs. non-kin controlling for age proximity

Table4.4.5: Testing kinship and age proximity simultaneously

Table 4.4.6: The effect of maternal kinship and exact age differences on affiliation and aggression

Table 4.4.7: The effect of paternal kinship and exact age differences on affiliation and aggression

Table 4.4.8: The effect of non-kinship and exact age differences on affiliation and aggression

Table 4.4.9: The effect of kinship and age proximity on affiliation and aggression controlling for spatial proximity

Table 4.4.10: Testing age proximity controlling for kinship and spatial proximity

Table 4.4.11: Testing maternal vs. paternal half-siblings and non-kin controlling for age proximity and spatial proximity

Table 4.4.12: Testing paternal half-siblings vs. non-kin controlling for age proximity and spatial proximity

Table 4.4.13: Testing kinship and age proximity simultaneously

Table 4.4.14: The correlation between affiliation and aggression among non-peers

Table 4.4.15: The correlation between affiliation and aggression among peers

Table 5.5.1: The effect of degrees of relatedness on affiliation and aggression in different kin categories

Table 5.5.2: Correlation between various maternal degrees of relatedness and affiliation or aggression, respectively

Table 5.5.3: Testing the relatedness threshold concept on affiliation and aggression

Table 5.5.4: The effect of kin category on affiliation and aggression

Table 5.5.5: Testing the effect of kin lineage and degree of relatedness on affiliation and aggression

Table 6.6.1: Correlation between individual attributes

Table 6.6.2: Testing individual attributes with variables related to support

Table 6.6.3: Testing the effect of dyadic attributes on grooming and support

Table 6.6.4: Correlation between rank distance and the degree of relatedness

Tabl 6.6.5: Testing the effect of the degree of relatedness on grooming and support controlling for rank distance

Table 6.6.6: Testing kin selection theory with respect to support

Table 6.6.7: Testing age proximity controlling for kinship

Table 6.6.8: Testing maternal vs. paternal half-siblings and non-kin controlling for age proximity

Table 6.6.9: Testing paternal half-siblings vs. non-kin controlling for age proximity

Tabelle 6.6.10: Reciprocity for the same behaviour among all adult females

Table 6.6.11: Reciprocity for the same behaviour among half-siblings and non-kin

Table 6.6.12: Interchange for different behaviours among all adult females

Table 6.6.13: Interchange for different behaviour among half-siblings and non-kin

Table A.3.1: Solved paternity in group R or BB for all individuals born between 1993 to 1998

Table A.3.2: Solved paternity in group R during the behavioural study in 1997

Fig. 3.3.1: Age-related male reproduction

Fig. 3.3.2: Continuity of paternity for reproducing females

Fig. 3.3.3 Percent of paternal half-siblings in close age proximity

Fig. 5.5.1 Mean frequency of proximity, grooming, approach, physical and non-physical aggression as a function of the degree of relatedness for maternal kin (squares) and paternal kin (triangle). The interaction between kin lineage and degree of relatedness is significant when the lines for maternal and paternal kin are different from parallel.

Fig. 5.5.1 Mean frequency of proximity, grooming, approach, physical and non-physical aggression as a function of the degree of relatedness for maternal kin (squares) and paternal kin (triangle). The interaction between kin lineage and degree of relatedness is significant when the lines for maternal and paternal kin are different from parallel.

Fig. 6.6.1: Support given to maternal half-siblings. The distribution of the six rank patterns of support given by adult females (N=49) to their maternal half-siblings (MS). The white bars are the observed distribution, the blue bars are the expected distribution.

Fig. 6.6.2: Support given to paternal half-siblings. The distribution of the six rank patterns of support given by adult females (N=49) to their paternal half-siblings (PS). Details in Fig. 6.1.

Fig. 6.6.3: Support given to non-kin. The distribution of the six rank patterns of support given by adult females (N=49) to non-kin (NK). Details in Fig. 6.1.

Fig. 6.6.4: Percentage of support given to non-kin (NK) across the three studies of macaques